■NRLF 


Charles  Ernest  Schwartz. 

No    3o^ 


m  MEMORIAJA 
Jo  Mil  Su^ett 


GRAM  M  A;R 


German  Language 


HIGH    SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES 


DESIGNED   FOR   BEGINNERS  AND  ADVANCED   STUDENTS 


H.  C.  G.  BRANDT 

HAMILTON     COLLEGE,     CLINTON,      N.    Y. 


SIXTH   EDITION 


WITH   AN   APPENDIX   CONTAINING    FULL   INFLECTIONS,  AND   A    LIST   OF    STRONG 
AND    IRREGULAR    VERBS 


iSoston 

ALLYN     AND     BACON 
1894 


Copyright^  1884,  by  ir.  P.  Putnam  5  Som^ 


EDUCAT'Ov 


Copyright,  1888,  by  Allyn  &»  Bacon, 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH   EDITION. 


^THHIS  is  the  first  thorougMy  revised  edition.  Of  the  criti- 
cisms  of  this  work,  I  have  been  able  to  accept  and 
embody  especially  those  of  Professor  A.  L.  Ripley,  of  Yale 
College,  and  of  Professor  Geo.  O.  Curme,  of  Cornell  College 
(Iowa),  to  both  of  whom  I  express  my  sincere  thanks.  The 
strictures  made  upon  my  classification  of  nouns  and  upon  the 
standard  of  pronunciation  I  do  not  think  well  founded.  The 
classification  of  nouns  is  historical  and  scientific.  If  the 
best  standard  should  finally  settle  upon  M,  jh  (§  375) 
for  g  and  not  upon  k  (surd  stop),  nothing  would  please  me 
better.  "  Hard "  t]  except  after  n  is  a  biiter  pill  for  a 
North  German.  To  the  objection  that  the  work  is  too  con- 
cise, let  me  say  that  I  have  tried  to  make  it  concise.  The 
Accidence  and  Part  II.  were  once  as  large  again  as  they 
are  now.  The  first  contained  too  much  syntax,  until,  follow- 
ing the  excellent  method  of  the  French  grammarians,  I  re- 
solved to  separate  entirely  inflection  and  syntax.  I  have  in 
this  edition  transferred  several  paragraphs  from  Part  I.  to 
Part  II.  Part  11.  is  a  historical  foundation  broad  enough  for 
Part  I.  to  rest  upon.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  a  minute  his- 
torical reference-grammar  for  teachers  and  specialists  only. 

The  word-index  has  been  very  much  enlarged.     With  the 
demand  for  the  traditional  list  of  irregular  verbs,  "  which  no 


IV  PREFACE   TO   THE   FOURTH    EDITION. 

grammar  should  be  without,"  I  have  compHed  so  far  as  to 
include  all  the  irregular  verbs  in  the  word-index  (see  intro- 
ductory remarks  on  p.  271).  I  wanted  to  make  the  G.-Eng. 
vocabulary  cover  all  the  sentences  and  words,  but  found  that 
it  would  swell  the  book  too  much.  It  is  complete  only  for 
Part  I.  (see  p.  271). 

The  list  of  reference-books  has  been  omitted  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Prof.  Ripley, 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  enumerate  the  distinguishing 
features  of  the  grammar :  (1)  the  complete  separation  of 
inflection  and  syntax ;  (2)  the  historical  treatment  of  the 
latter,  that  should  make  it  a  welcome  aid  in  the  reading  of 
16th,  17th,  and  18th  century  Literature  ;  (3)  the  attempt  to 
treat  German  grammar  with  regard  to  the  present  stage  of 
Germanic  philology  ;  (4)  the  scientific  analysis  of  German 
sounds  and  accent. 

The  Author, 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SIXTH   EDITION. 

I  HAVE  finally  complied  fully  with  tlie  demand  for  a  sepa- 
rate List  of  Strong  and  Irregular  Verbs,  and  have  also  added 
more  extensive  inflections  of  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
verbs,  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  first  section  of  the 
grammar. 

H.   C.   G.    B. 
Clinton,  N.  Y., 
April,  1893. 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS, 


PAET  I.    SECTION  1. 

PAOH 

ACCIDENCE 1-47 

Pronunciation  with  Alphabets 1-5 

The  Articles 6-7 

Declension  of  Nouns 7-17 

Declension  and  Comparison  of  the  Adjective 17-21 

Numerals 31-33 

Pronouns * 33-30 

Conjugation , 30-47 

Weak  Verbs 35-87 

Strong  Verbs 37-43 

Anomalous  Verbs 44-47 


SECTION  2. 

SYNTAX. 

SPECIAL  SYNTAX 51-130 

Articles 51-55 

Nouns 56-74 

Gender 56-63 

Singular  and  Plural 63-64 

Cases 64-74 

Adjectives 74-80 

Numerals 80-83 

Pronouns 83-96 

Personal  Pronouns , 83-85 

Reflexive  and  Reciprocal  Pronouns 8d 


VI  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Possessive  Pronouns 86-88 

Demonstrative  Pronouns 88-91 

Interrogative  Pronouns ., 91-93 

Relative  Pronouns 93-95 

Indefinite  Pronouns 95-96 

Vekbs 97-118 

Classification  of  Verbs 97 

Auxiliary  Verbs 97-99 

Modal  Auxiliaries 99-102 

Voice 102-104 

Tenses 104^110 

Moods 110-112 

Infinitive 113-116 

Participles. 116-118 

Gerundive 118 

Advekb 119 

Preposition 119-130 

Conjunction 130 


GENERAL  SYNTAX 131-152 

The  Simple  Sentence 131-135 

The  Compound  Sentence ...  135-147 

Coordinate  Sentences 135-137 

Subordinate  Sentences 137-147 

Substantive  Clauses 137-138 

Adjective  Clauses 139 

Adverbial  Clauses 140-147 

WORD-ORDEll 147-154 

PAET  II.    ADVANCED  GRAMMAR 

A   Phonology 157-193 

Historical  Notes  on  the  Orthography 157-160 

Analysis  and  Description  of  German  Sounds 160-176 

Ablaut,  Umlaut 176-182 

Grimm's  Law,  Verner's  Law 182-189 

Accent 189-1 93 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  vil 

PAGE 

B.  Historical  Commentary  upon  the  Accidence 194r-216 

Noun-Declension 194-198 

Adjective- Declension 198-199 

Pronouns 200-208 

Conjugation 203-216 

C.  History  of  the  Language 217-230 

Characteristics  of  the  Germanic  Languages 217 

Classification  of  the  Germanic  Languages 218 

Classification  of  the  German  Dialects 219-221 

History  of  "  German  " 221-228 

The  German  Wordstock 228-230 

D.  Wordformation 231-264 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Substantives 232-245 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Adjectives  and  Numerals. .  245-251 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Verbs 252-261 

Derivation  of  Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. .  261-264 


List  of  Abbreviations  and  Symbols  that  Require  Ex- 
planations          265 

Subject-Index 266-270 

Word-Index  and  German-English  Vocabulary 271-286 

Appendix:  Fuller  Inflections  of  Substantives,  Adjectives, 
and  Verbs;  and  a  List  of  Strong  and  Irregular 
Verbs.. , .  o 287-314 


FIRST     PART 


FIRST    SECTION. 


ACCIDENCE. 


THE    GERMAN   ALFHA'ig^lt  •'  \, >  Jv' ;\: 
1—2. 
German  type.      German  script.         Name.     German  type.      German  script.       Name. 


3t  a       ^ 


33  6 

S  c 

®  b 

g  e 

%  f 

®  9 

|)  ^ 

S  t 

^  J 
«  f 

?    I 

2«m 


(2^ 


9le  ci  i  ^  ^ 
Ue  iiii 


ah 

bay 

tsay 

day 

(b)ay 

ef 

gay 


C/'^y    hah 


yot 
kah 
el 
em 


5^  n      ^<^ 


£)  0 

£x  q 
9t   r 


^. 


U    u 

SB  IB      ^^- 

3  5 


l^ 


ah-umlaut  /^ 


(h)ai(r) 
-r*-^    ^       oh-umlaut 
oo-umlaut 


c/ 


iu      ^^I.j:'^^  '"(""^Ir* 


oh 

pay 

koo 

Air 

es 

iay 

(t)oo 

fou(l) 

vay 

ix 

ipsilon 

tset 

tsay-hah 
tsay-kah 


es-tsay-hah 

(-sh) 


J^ROKUKOIATION.  [3- 


PRONUNCIATION. 

The  German  sounds  are  here  only  very  inaccurately  represented  by 
English  words  and  letters.  A  full  analysis  is  found  in  the  second  part, 
p.  160.  The  following  description,  with  a  few  key-words,  will  suffice  for 
the  beginner ;  but  it  is  meant  to  be  only  a  popular  description.  As  soon 
as  the  student  begins  to  read,  he  ought  to  study  Part  II.,  p.  160-174. 

3.  a  as  in  'Emg.  father :  25ater,  3lal,  2oi%  a,  not  in  Eng., 
but  similar  to  Scotch  a  as  in  Sc.  hand,  land:    ^ann,  Sanl), 

4.  B  =  Eng.  6,  but  surd  (  =p)  at  the  end  of  words:  S3uk, 

5.  c,  rf  =  Eng.  k :  (£arl,  ^a(fe,  53acfer. 

6.  H),  not  in  Eng.,  but  in  Scotcb  as  in  loch.  A  single  guttural 
sound.  Two  kinds  :  1.  Palatal  (forward)  after  palatal  vowels, 
viz. :  e,  i,  b,  ii,  d,  ei,  eu,  and  in  the  suffix  ?(^en,  e,  g.,  \6^,  2Bd(^ter, 
33le^,  mod)te,  eu(^,  ®erud)t,  wei^,  ^d^d^en,  ^ama^en.  2.  Back- 
guttural  after  the  other  vowels,  a,  0,  u,  o^n,  e.  g.,  ac^,  Vc^6^,  So(^, 
33u(^,  33auc^  (betrog  in  N.  G-.).  In  (E^rfrei'tag  and  in  foreign 
words  =1  k :  (£^ara'fter,  S^or ;  also  like  f(^  in  foreign  words : 
S^ampa'gner,  (^angie'ren,  (E^ance. 

7.  b  =  Eng.  ^,  but  surd  (=  t)  finally:  ^u,  bo(^,  33at),  Iut>. 

8.  c,  long,  similar  to  Eng.  a,  a?/?  as  in  pa?/,  pate,  rate ;  short, 
like  Eng.  e,  as  in  me^,  e:  gc^n,  53eet,  tt>ert;  e:  rec^t,  SBette. 

9.  f  ==  Eng./;  ^offett,  §afen,  fii^ren,  ?^Iagge. 

10.  Q  =  Eng.  ^,  but  surd  (=^)  finally:  glauben,  plagen, 
graben;  but  2:ag,  3ug,  fragte,  trug,  33alg. 

11.  ^  =  Eng.  h  if  it  stands  initially  :  iputtt),  §ofe,  ^afe. 
After  a  vowel  and  after  a  t  it  is  silent  :  ftel)n,  fe^(e)n,  fa^,  t^Utt, 
2:l)at,  3:^al.     See  the  dropping  of  I),  p.  159. 

12.  I  similar  to  Eng.  i :  Mn,  flnbe,  bringe. 

!  or  ic  =  Eng.  ee  in  feet :  »ier,  ftegcn,  ntir,  fcir,  3gel,  33iber, 


24]  PEONUN^CIATIOl^fl, .         :     .  3 

13.  j  similar  to  Eng.  y:  jung,  iagen,  3iig^» 

14.  f,  if  =  Eng.  k:  ^a^e,  Bade,  ^alen. 

15.  (  similar  to  Eng.  I :  Sage,  la^en,  tuo^l,  @aal,  Bait). 

16.  m  =  Eng.  m ;  9Hol(^,  @aum,  f(^n?{mmen. 

17.  n  =  Eng.  w.  1.  Initially,  finally,  and  before  a  den- 
tal: yf^agel,  nun,  fein,  fen^en,  ^ant,  ^unb.  2.  In  the  stem-syllable 
before  t,  and  combined  with  g  like  Eng.  ng  in  sm^,  singer: 
^nfang,  ©attger,  ?5i«gf^',  ^ti«^,  fenlen,  feUnlen;  but  an^ge^fommen, 

18.  0  =  Eng.  0,  oa,  in  hold,  foal :  33ote,  53oot,  tot,  rot,  Soo^, 
lo^,  J^on  (clay),  o  not  in  Eng.,  but  short  Sc.  o  ;  e.  g.:  2Bo(^e, 
2o(^,  @tO(f,  9lo(f  (not  at  all  Hke  Eng.  stock,  rock,  but  see  p.  164). 

19.  ^  =  like  Eng.  p;  plagen,  ^appe,  3:rap))er,  ©alo'pp* 

^f  =  p  +/;  ^f«nt),  5^apf,  (Sumpf,  tapfer.    In  Eng.  only  in 
accidental  juxtaposition,  e.  g.,  "  a  cap  for  him,"  "  stop  for  me." 
|i]^  ia  foreign  words  only  =/:  ^^ilologie',  2;elegra'rt» 

20.  q  always  followed  by  u,  similar  to  Eng.  qu:  quer, 
Duaft,  Duart,  bequem. 

21.  r  unlike  Eng.  r.  1.  Trilled:  S^legen,  Sflac^e,  fern,  %\xx{, 
treu.  This  is  the  standard  r.  2.  Uvular  or  guttural  in  N.  G,, 
very  much  like  the  guttural  (^,  but  sonant. 

22.  f,  ff,  §,  fj  =:  Eng.  surd  s:  S^au^,  ^aufe,  Staffer,  guf, 
9}?uge,  fetfl ;  but  initially  and  after  a  vowel  it  begins  surd  and 
ends  sonant,  as  in  N.  and  M.  G.  Standard  unsettled.  But 
see  p.  175. 

23.  f^  =  Eng.  sh  (surd) :  fc^tdfen,  fd)en!en,  ^afc^ett,  ©(^(ange. 

24.  ft,  f^  =  f j^t,  f j^^  initially  in  the  standard  pronuncia- 
tion and  in  S.  and  M.  G.  But  in  the  middle  and  at  the  end 
of  words,  in  N.  G.  also  at  the  beginning  of  words  =  Eng.  st, 
sp ;  f(^t,  fd)p :  @tein,  @tra§e,  @tu|I,  ®pag,  fpriegen ;  st,  sp :  ^aft, 
njiifte,  berften,  3Burft,  Sefpe,  ^afpeln.    N.  G.:  ©ptef,  etod. 


*^' :  /' ; '' , ''  '  i  ''  r .  \  /''\ '  c  *ronukciatio:n".  [25- 

25.  t,  it)  =  Eng.  t :  ^at,  !)atte,  ^^at,  5fla^t. 

26.  u  =  Eng.  00  in  too :  iput,  Sut,  33(ume,  33u^,  33u^le. 
u  =  Eng.  u  in  pw^f ;  33utter,  ftu^en,  ®ulr)en, 

27.  ti  =  Eng./ in  German  words:  25ater,  ^rei)cl,  ijteL  tj  = 
German  tu  in  foreign  words:  ^ita'x,  i)inbtjte'ren,  ^^afa'nj. 

28.  ttJ  like  Eng.  v  dento-labial :  ^Better,  SSaffer,  warncit. 
After  fi^  labio-labial  like  u  after  q,  but  not  quite  like  Eng.  w  : 
©c^tvefter,  ©($mei§,  Sc^meUe,    But  see  p.  170. 

29.  J  in  foreign  words  and  c§§^  t^f  =  Eng.  x :  Sllejfanbev, 
2Cacfcg,  gu(^^,  pcl)fm,  fec^^. 

t|  =  ii,  which  see. 

30.  3,  ^  =  Eng.  ts,  as  in  cats,  rats :   3w«3^/  3^W9/  SBarje, 

c  in  foreign  words  before  e,  i,  ^,  a  =:  ^s ;  cerebral,  (Eafu'r,  (Sifa'be, 
S^^flo'p;  but  the  spelhng  is  unsettled:  3^9^'^^^/ S^tt^^^^^^  3^n)n'x. 

31.  Modified  Vowels   (Umlauts). 

tt  long  =  Eng.  ai  in  fair :  3Sdter,  9ldt)er,  fld'^Iern* 

d  short  =  Eng.  and  Ger.  c  :  ipdn^e,  SSdnte,  fallen. 

0  not  in  Eng.  It  has  the  Hp-position  of  o,  the  tongue- 
position  of  c:  long  in  bofe,  Ibfert,  ^er^bge;  short  in  ^Boiler,  ^Mt, 
®erbt(e. 

ii  not  in  Eng.  It  has  the  lip-position  of  u,  the  tongue- 
position  of  i:  long  in  M^k,  53tt(^er,  ^ud)lein;  short  in  ^iifler, 
@unt»e,  33utteL 

t|  =  ii,  as  in  S^a'n,  S^pre'jfe,  only  in  foreign  words. 

32.  Diphthongs. 

oi  (rare)  and  ti  =  Eng.  i  in  find:  ^aifer,  ^ai,  (eife,  tveif, 
Heiben,      an  =  Eng.  ou  in  /lowse ;  Hau,  ipau^,  SJJau^. 

du  and  cu  similar  to  Eng.  oi  in  exploit :  SRdufe,  Iduten,  33eute, 


37J  PRONUNCIATION^: 


Quantity  of  Vowels. 

33.  Vowels  are  long  in  an  open  syllable,  e.  g.^  Za^^^t^, 
jo^gert,  33u-ct)er.  They  are  also  indicated:  1.  By  doubling,  but 
only  in  the  case  of  a,  e,  o:  'Baal,  @ee(e,  Woo^,  2.  By  t)  after 
the  vowel  and  after  t :  ^a^n,  D^nt,  i^tt,  Zl^van,  Zi^ov.  3.  By  c 
after  i:  lie6,  Zux,  ijieL  4.  a  and  e  are  generally  long  before 
r,  rt,  xt) :  mx,  xax,  ter,  mxt,  mxUn,  ^axt,  ^ferb.  Short  in  fertig 
(<  %a^xt),  SGarte,  ©d^arte,  ^erj,  ©(^merj. 

34.  The  vowels  are  short  before  more  than  one  consonant: 
^anbeln,  Bergen,  ^ad^it,  ®elu6t)e,  ^a^m* 

35.  ft  counts  as  a  single  consonant ;  it  becomes  ff  medially  (see 
"  Rules,"  §  12),  e.  g.,  glu§  —  ^^luffe^,  gliiffe ;  fltepen  —  flop,  gefloffen.  The 
vowel  remains  long  before  inflectional  endings,  e.g.,  lokn,  lot»f!,  geloit 
(but  ge^abtf  gentoc^t) ;  also  in  a  closed  syllable,  when  the  stem- vowel  stands 
in  an  open  syllable  under  inflection,  e.  g.,  %<x%,  S^a^ge^;  Bug,  Bu^ge*^.  But 
see  p.  175. 

Since  d|  cannot  be  doubled,  there  is  no  telling  the  quantity  of  the  pre- 
ceding vowel  from  the  mere  looks  of  the  word:  e.^r.,  longin  33ud)  — 
SBud^e^;  %vi&j  —  %\x&ii^\  brac^  — bracken;  but  short  in  S3a^  —  33a(|e« ;  lac^eitf 
wad)cn.     As  a  rule,  shortness  may  be  expected. 

36.  The  division  into  syllables  differs  somewhat  from  the  English 
custom.  The  "  Rules  "  §  26  show  how  words  are  divided  at  the  end  of  a 
line.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  safficiently:  |a==kn,  fu(^=te, 
k^c^ren,  Secure,  ver-irren,  ge^trrt,  2Bafsfer,  (Stra='§c,  lo^fd^en,  roster,  ^^iit^ger  (but 
see  17),  ^i^n,  SSei^jeit,  ^xHt,  ^ar^pfett,  i6e^ob^ad^ten,  nad^^fa^^gcn,  k^glau^ 
In^gcn. 

37.  German  orthography  is  now  regulated  by  the  government,  and  the  student 
who  is  to  write  German  should  provide  himself  with  the  official,  aJegeln  unb  2B6rter»er= 
jeic^niS  fftr  bie  beuty(^e  9Je^ty(!^rei6ung  in  ben  preu^tfc^en  ©(^ulen.  fflerlin.  It  is  a  small 
convenient  guide  of  46  pages,  with  a  quite  full  word-list.    See  36 1 ,  2. 


THE  ARTICLES. 


[38- 


THE  ARTICLES. 

38.     The  definite  article  is  Uv,  Me,  tad  +  the  ;  the  indefinite, 
ein,  eitte,  ein  +  one,  an,  a. 

The  definite  article  declines: 


masc. 

fem. 

neuter. 

common  gender. 

Sing.  N.  Cer 

tie 

tad 

Plu. 

tie 

G.  ted 

ter 

ted 

ter 

D.  tern 

ter 

tern 

ten 

A.  ten 

tie 

tad 

tie 

e  indefinite  article  decUnes: 

Sing.  N.  ein 

eine 

etrt 

G.  eined 

etner 

eined 

D.  einem 

einer 

einem 

A.  einen 

eine 

ein 

39.  The  articles  are  unaccented. 

The  definite  article  is  the  weakened  demonstrative  pronoun,  which 
has  chief  stress.  It  retains  the  short  original  forms  of  the  same.  The 
indefinite  article  is  the  weakened  numeral  ein,  which  also  has  chief  stress. 
To  mark  the  demonstrative  pronoun  and  the  numeral,  they  are  some- 
times printed  spaced  or  with  a  capital  letter  :  9?ur  (£tnen  ©d^ritt,  fo  H\l  bu 
fret,  F.  4563  ;  but  g^  war  einmal  ein  ^onig,  F.  2312.  2)er  Mo^x  hm  ge^n 
(Sch.).  (£^  t^ut  mir  tang'  f(^on  m^,  ba§  i^  bi^  in  b  e  r  ©efettfc^aft  fe^\  F. 
3470-1. 

40.  Owing  to  their  lack  of  accent  both  articles  suffer  aphseresis  and 
apocope,  and  contraction  with  the  preceding  word,  most  frequently  with  a 
preposition :  bem  and  bad  are,  according  to  good  usage,  combined  with  the 
following  prepositions :  an,  auf,  M,  bur(|,  fitr,  Winter,  in,  itkr,  urn,  unter,  i)cn, 
vor,  and  ju;  e.  g.,  ant,  and,  aufd,  tnd,  umd,  *ont,  etc.  In  general,  contractions 
with  dissyllabic  prepositions  are  rarer  in  the  classics,  common  in  the 
spoken  language,  which  allows  the  contraction  of  ben  whether  dative  plu- 
ral or  accusative  singular  masculine  with  the  above  and  also  with  other 
prepositions.  Some  such  are  even  in  the  classics  :  in  =  in'n,  F.  2429,  „in 
(Seflel,"  Lessing's  Nathan,  „in  (Bad,"  „tn  ^opf,"  »on  %aQ."   3n,  urn  contain 


43]  DECLEKSION^   OF   KOUNS.  7 

long  (see  389,5)  consonants  and  the  article  is  not  absent,  as  is  generally 
explained.  In  conversation  is  heard:  urn  5lrm,  »on  Sciumen/  auf  n  i^elbcrn, 
nttt'u  |)anben,  burc^^n  2Balb,  The  apostrophe  in  auf  <J,  iiber'^,  etc.,  is  not  at 
all  indispensable,  ©er,  dative  singular  feminine,  combines  properly  only 
with  ju  into  jur. 

41.  Attractions  of  the  definite  article,  especially  of  the  neuter,  to  pre- 
ceding words  other  than  prepositions  are  common  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage, e.g.,  „\6)  witt^a  33u(^  ^oleit,"  „ix  l^at  ftc^'a  S3ein  gekoc^cn."  wSBinbH^^ 
9)ferb  ^au^  an"  (G.).    „Unb  ^afi'«  tiiffen  »erlernt«  (F.  4485). 

1.  The  aphseresis  of  /,ein"  common  in  the  spoken  language  is  also 
found  in  the  written,  e.  g.,  wSarf  auf  ^nen  @tu^l  bie  ^anbf(^u'^^"(Uh.).  Bold 
abbreviations  are  these  in  Chamisso's,  „^i  tt)ar  mal  ^ne  ^a^enfonigin."  The 
dropping  of  ein  before  mal  is  not  unusual  :  „(£<§  war  mal  etn  ^aifer;"  «5luc() 
tt)ar  mal  ein  51M"  (Bii.).  Notice  fo^ne  for  fo  einc.  The  early  N.  H.  G.  (16th 
century)  eim  for  einem  (comp.  M.  H.  G.  eime  for  eineme),  etnn  or  eiu  for 
einen  occur  still  in  some  South  German  dialects.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  aphae- 
resis  of  "•ein"  is  unheard  of,  while  the  definite  article  is  much  more 
pliant  than  in  the  present  classical  language.  Apocope  of  the  same  is 
still  allowable  in  certain  S.  G.  dialects. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

42.  There  are  three  systems  of  Declension,  the 
Strong  {Vowel,  Old),  the  Weak  (Consonant,  n-Declension 
or  Jiew),  and  the  Mixed. 

TJie  strong  declension  {see  43,  1)  has  (e)^  in  the  geni- 
tive singular;  the  weah  has  (e)tt  in  all  cases,  singular 
and  plural,  except  in  the  nominative  singular;  the 
mixed  has  (e)^  in  the  genitive  singular,  (e)n  in  the 
whole  plural. 

General  Rules. 

43.  1.  Feminine  nouns  never  vary  in  the  singular. 

2.  The  only  case-endings  are  (e)^  for  the  genitive  singular 
and  (e)n  for  the  dative  plural. 

3.  e  in  the  case-suffix  ought  to  stand  in  nouns  ending  in 

f;  %  %  h,  ^  t/  ii* 


8  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS.  [44- 

c  is  always  dropped  after  cl,  en,  em,  er,  c^en,  lein.  In  other 
cases  it  is  optional.  If  the  genitive  singular  has  e^,  then  the 
dative  singular  has  e  as  a  rule:  ^aufeg,  ju  ^aitfe, 

a.  Distribution  of  nouns  among  these  declensions  according 
to  gender: 

1.  The  bulk  of  feminine  nouns  belong  to  the  n-declension. 
No  neuters  at  all. 

2.  To  the  strong  declension  belong  mainly  masculine  and 
neuter  nouns,  and  a  few  feminines. 

3.  The  mixed  declension  includes  a  few  masculine  and 
neuter  nouns. 

Strong  Declension. 

44.  We  distinguish  for  practical  reasons  four  classes, 
according  to  the  formation  of  the  plural  : 

1.  No  sign  unless  it  be  umlaut:  ba^  SBunter,  t)te  SBuntcr;  ter 
S5ater,  tie  3Sdter» 

2.  -e  without  umlaut:  ter  2;ag,  tie  3:age;  ta^  So^,  bie  Sofe. 

3.  -e  with  umlaut :  ber  @o^n,  tie  ©b^tie  ;  tie  ^raft,  tie 
^rdfte. 

4.  -er  always  with  umlaut :  ta^  33at,  tie  33dter ;  ta^  §au5, 
tic  ipdufer, 

45.  First  Cla.ss. — a.  No  sign: 

Sing,  N.  ter  ©paten  ta^  ©ewerbe  ter  (Sngel 

G.  te^  ©patent  te^  ©en^erbe^  teg  Sngel^ 

PZw.  D.  ten  ©paten  ten  ®etverBen  ten  Sngeln 

All  other  cases  singular  and  plural  like  nominative  singular. 
6.  With  umlaut: 

Sing.  N.,  D.,  A.  ter  gaten  ter  S3ruter 

G.  teg  Sateng  teg  33ruter0 

PZw.  N.,  G.,  A.  tie  gdten  tie  fritter 

D.  ten  8dtm  ten  53rutent 


48]  DECLE]S"SION   OF   NOUNS.  9 

46.  To  this  class,  which  never  take  e  in  the  G.  and  D. 
sing.,  belong: 

1.  Masculine  and  neuter  nouns  in  -ct,  -cr, -en, -d^en, -lein, 
-fel,  e,  g.,  ter  ipeBel,  Ux  dlitkx,  fcer  33obett,  l)er  ^popfen,  t)a^  ipiintd^en, 
ta^  ^infclein,  la^  Mt\tU 

2.  Neuters  of  the  form  ^c-e,  e.  g.,  ba^  ©etreifce,  ®ef(^meibe» 

3.  The  names  of  kindred  in  -er :  3Sater,  53ruber,  Zo6^kt,  ^niitx, 
@d)mager,  all  with  umlaut.     Also  ter  ^dfe. 

4.  Certain  nouns,  if  they  take  -n  in  the  nominative  singu- 
lar, as  they  may  according  to  usage:  ter  %d\tn,  ber  ^Srunnen,  ttx 
Xxopicn,  t)er  (Si^recfen  (these  so  generally).  The  following  not 
so  frequently  in  the  written  language:  ter  ^un!e(n),  Salfe(n), 
griei^e(n),  ®et)anfe(n),  @efa(Ie(n),  ®(aube(n),  ipaufe(n),  5^ame(n), 
@ame(n),  ®(^at)c(tt)» 

47.  1.  5ltent  (Dbem),  33robem,  ©tbam,  SBrofam  stand  isolated.  The  plural, 
if  it  occurs,  is  tlie  -e  of  the  next  class.  33rofamen,  f.,  is  more  common 
than  aSrofame.     See  501. 

2.  All  nouns  sub  4,  except  ^rtebe,  ©efaffe,  and  ®ebanfe,  were  weak  in 
M,  H.  G.,  and  are  not  yet  fully  established  in  the  strong  declension. 
Since  usage  is  unsettled,  they  might  all  be  put  under  the  mixed  or  weak 
declension. 

48.  1.  The  nouns  of  this  class  that  take  umlaut,  besides  the  names 
of  kindred  in  -er,  are  :  bet  5tpfel  +  apple,  3l(fer  +  acre,  S3oben  +  bottom, 
soil ;  i^ciben,  thread  (bie  %attn  +  fathoms),  ©arten  +  garden,  ^afiXi,  harbor, 
+  haven;  jammer  +  hammer,  !2aben(?),  shutter,  shop  (store);  9)langel, 
want,  S'iagel  +  nail,  Dfen  +  oven,  stove ;  ©attel  +  saddle,  <B^ahtn,  harm 
(but  e^  ift  Sd)abe,  it  is  too  bad);  <Bi^mM  beak,  ©d^tuager  brother-in-law, 
aSogel,  bird,  -i-  fowl.  Two  neuters  take  umlaut :  ^lofler  +  cloister  <  L, 
claustrum,  and  Sager(?),  camp. 

3.  In  none  of  these  is  there  any  cause  that  could  produce  umlaut  as  in 
i  and  jo  stems  or  before  -4r.  Umlaut  has  arisen  from  analogy  with  these. 
^attXf  ^VLtttx,  ©riiber,  Slbi^ter  had  umlaut  already  in  M.  H.  G.  This  way 
of  forming  the  plural  is  on  the  increase,  because  it  is  so  convenient  and 
some  way  of  indicating  the  plural  seems  necessary.  aSagen,  Sciger,  etc., 
still  sound  objectionable,  but  have  no  worse  and  no  better  claim  to  cor- 
rectness than  the  above. 


10  DECLENSION  OF   NOUNS.  [49- 

49.  Second  Class. — Plural  -e,  no  umlaut. 

Sing.  N.,A.  ipunt  bic  ^Drangfal  bad  3a^r 

G.  bed  ^untied  ber  ^rangfd  ted  3at)red 

D.  bent  ^unbc  ber  '£)rangfal  tern  3«t)re 

Plu,  N.,G.,  A.  ipunbc  Xrancifale  3a^re 

D.  §unben  I)rartgfalett  3al)ren 

50.  To  this  class  belong: 

1.  A  small  number  of  feminines  in  -nid  and  -fal,  e.  g.,  bie 
Traiti^fat,  Jriibfat;  tie  ginfternid,  ^etriibnid,  pi.  -niffe. 

2.  Many  masculines;  some  callable  of  umlaut,  but  without  it. 
These  may  be  considered  exceptions  to  the  third  class:  ber 
Qlal+eel,  Slat  eagle,  3lrm -f- arm,  33efu(%  visit,  SlmBoJ  +  anvil, 
'£)0i^^  badger,  Xo^t,  wick,  ®rab  + degree,  ipalm,  blade,  +  haulm, 
ipuf  +  lioof,  .^unb  dog,  +  hound ;  2adJd  salmon,  Saut  sound, 
Sbx6ii^  +  lynx,  ^fab  +  path,  ^unlt  +  point,  (S^u^  +  shoe,  3;ag  + 
day,  (Stoff  material,  +  stuff;  2:^rott  +  throne,  SSerfui^,  attempt, 
and  a  very  few  others. 

3.  Masculines  in  -ig,  -(i)c^,  -ing,  -ling,  -(e)nb,  -at,  -id,  -i(^t, 
e.  gf.,  ber  greunb  +  friend,  ©anferid)  +  gander,  ^aMd>t  +  hawk, 
ipering  +  herring,  3lti^  (pl-  S^tiff^)  pole-cat,  3ungling  +  youth, 
^onig  +  king,  WM  salamander,  S[Ronat  +  month. 

4.  Many  neuters,  among  which  monosyllabics ;  those  with 
the  prefix  @e-;  in  -nx^,  -fal :  ^(li  3<i|^  +  year,  ©efd^en!  present, 
©efdngnid  (pl.  -jTe)  prison,  8c^i(ffal  fate. 

51.  The  group  sub  2  is  on  the  decrease,  because  we  cannot  tell  on 
the  surface  whether  a  noun  has  umlaut  or  not.  To  avoid  the  diflBculty, 
several  nouns  form  very  anomalous  plurals :  ber  S3au,  bie  33auten  instead 
of  Sauc.  Of  S!)torb,  pl.  S&iorbe  is  rare,  rather  SJlorbt^ten;  of  ®d)nuicE,  pl. 
©(^murfe  is  rare,  rather  ©c^ntutf [ac^en ;  ©c^Iucf,  pl.  ©c^lude  is  seldom  used, 
since  it  stands  in  the  singular  after  a  number,  e.  g.,  brei  (S(^(u(f  33rannt»' 
wein.    See  173. 


56]  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS.  11 


52.     Third  Class.— Plural 

-e,  with  umlaut. 

Sing.  N.,  A.  Der  ®tamm 

tie  ^u^ 

tie  Sraut 

G.  Ui  @tammeg 

ter  ^u'^ 

Der  33raut 

D.  tern  (Stamme 

ter  ^u^ 

fcer  33raut 

PZiA.  N..A.,G-.  (Stamme 

^ii^e 

S3raute 

D.  ©tdmmert 

^ii^en 

33rauten 

53.  To  this  class  belong : 

1.  The  majority  of  strong  masculine  nouns,  mostly  monosyl- 
labics  :  ter  ©efang  +  song,  ®ekauc^  use,  33all  +  ball,  ^aft  + 
guest,  ©o^n  +  son,  etc. 

2.  A  number  of  feminine  nouns  :  W  Slngft  +  anxiety,  5l)ct 
+  axe,  '^oxd  +  bench  +  bank,  ^runft,  heat,  lust ;  33ruft  + 
breast,  gauft  +  fist,  grudjt  +  fruit,  ®an^  +  goose,  ©ruft 
vault,  ^anb  +  hand,  ipawt  +  hide,  ^luft  +  cleft,  ^lunft  in 
compounds  as  in  (Einlunft  +  income;  %Ci\x^  +  louse,  Swft  air, 
Suft  desire,  ^a&ji  +  might,  SJlagt  +  maid,  servant ;  '^o.\x^ 
+  mouse,  ^^lac^t  +  night,  9lal)t  seam,  9lu^  +  nut,  ^im  +  sow 
©^ttur    string,    (Statt    city,   SBanti   wall   (of   a   room),    SSurjl 

.sausage,  B^nft   guild  ;   5luSflu^t   evasion,  Slrmkujl  cross-bow, 
©efcbwulft  +•  swelHng. 

54.  Only  two  modern  neuter  nouns  belong  here,  the  last 
of  which  is  of  doubtful  gender,  viz.:  T)a^  %U^  raft  (429,  1) ; 
ter  or  ta^  S^or  +  choir,  chorus. 

55.  No  neuters  belong  here  really  except  0.  H.  G.  meri,  ba(3  ?Wecr,  bte 
Wiiixt,  now  according  to  3d  Class.  'Der  and  ba^  S^or,  borrowed  from 
church  Latin  "chorus,"  has  joined  the  group  sub  2.  !I)a^  SBoot,  blc  33ote 
because  it  was  also  ber  S3oot,  a  modern  borrowed  word  <  D.  2)ie  33oote 
is  more  elegant.  !Da^  9lo^r»  bte  Oio^re  is  not  good.  Besides  there  is  bte 
DiiJ^rC/  feminine  singular,  the  pipe,  tube. 


12 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS. 


[56^ 


56 


5.    Fourth  Class. — Plural 

Sing. 

N. 

,A. 

ta^  9flal) 

G. 

De^  3flabe3 

D. 

tern  3flate 

Flu.  N., 

G.. 

.A. 

Slater 

D. 

ten  9ldt)em 

-er,  always  with  umlaut: 

3rrtum 
t>e^  3t^ttum^ 
tern  S^rtumc 

Srrtiimer 
ben  S^rtiimem 


57.  To  this  class  belong: 

1.  About  sixty  neuter  monosyllabics :  tag  2lag  {^^^),  33latt, 
^ad^,  gac^,  etc. 

2.  All  in  -turn,  whether  masculine  or  neuter:  tag  iperjogtum, 
ter  Sleic^tum* 

3.  Some  mascuhnes,  viz.:  ter  53bfen)i(^t*,  'Dorn*,  ®etft,  ®ott, 
Seib,  ?i)?ann,  Drt*,  9lant,  ©traud)*,  3Sormunt,  Salt,  2Curm. 

4.  A  few  neuters,  with  the  prefix  ®e-  :  tas  ©ernac^,  ©emiit, 
(S^cfc^led^t*,  ©eMt*,  ©efpenfl,  d^emant*. 

58.  Only  neuters  had  this  plural  -er  at  first.  Of  the  sixty 
sub  1,  some  twenty  form  a  different  plural,  and  usage  is  unset- 
tled; so  do  those  sub  3  and  4  marked  with  a  *.  In  the  fol- 
lowing a  distinction  is  made  in  meaning  between  the  different 
forms  of  the  plural: 


Subl, 

2,4,- 

tag  33ant, 

53ante,  ties, 

33anter,  ribbons. 

'Denlmat, 

-male,  monuments, 

-mdler,  figurative  sense. 

'Dtng, 

£)tnge,  things, 

T)inger,  coll.,  e.  g.,  girls. 

m6^t, 

®ef{d)te,  visions, 

©efiti^ter,  faces. 

®cwant, 

®ewante  (poetic). 

©etvanter  (commonly). 

Sant, 

Santc  (poetic). 

Sdnter  (commonly). 

Sic^t, 

Sit^te,  candles  (only). 

Sici^ter,  lights. 

©djilt, 

masc.  ©djilte,  shields, 

©c^ilcer  (sign-board). 

m\t, 

masc.  ©tifte,  pencils, 

(^tifter,  institutions. 

2uc^, 

2^u(^e,  kinds  of  cloth. 

2;uc^er,  cloths,  shawls. 

2Bort, 

SBorte,  words  (their  mean- 
ing), 

SCbrter,  parts  of  speech 

62]  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS.  13 

Sub3,— 

ber  ^^^nn,     Sl'Jannen,  retinue,  Wanner,  men. 

Ort,  Drten,  D.  and  G.  pi.  only,     Drter,  places,  towns. 

59.  S^riintmer  occurs  in  the  plural  only.  But  a  weak  plural  Slrummern 
occurs  in  tlie  classics.  Singular  S^runtm  +  thrum.  »^dvi\ittn,"  as  dative 
plural,  is  isolated  in  wju  bcit  ^aupten."  Wlam  was  originally  a  co7is-Btem, 
*mann-  (see  Kluge's  Diet.).  The  form  2)?anu  in  fiinfjig  Wlam  is  the  real 
nominative  plural  of  the  cons-stem.  5SKcnfd)  was  originally  neuter,  being 
an  adjective  0.  H.  G.  mennisco.  T>a^  Mtn\d},  tie  ?Wenfvi)er,  now  implies  a 
slur,  speaking  of  woman  =  strumpet  (see  Kluge's  Diet.).  SBic^t  in  Sofe^ 
tDtd}t  was  also  once  a  neuter,  +  wight.     See  431. 

60.  In  early  N.  H.  G.  many  of  the  neuters  still  occur  without  -er. 
^inbe^  tinb  werben  bcine  2Berf  ^reifen  (B.).  tinbcr  unb  ^inbe^  ^inb  (erjci^Ien) 
son  bent  ^olf  noc^  unb  feinen  ©c^aren  (Sch.). 

The  plural  in  -^  is  not  elegant.  (SdhtU,  Sungcn^,  %xauini,  ^xMm^ 
are  more  than  colloquial,  though  found  in  the  classics.  This  -<3  is  strictly 
Low  German,  and  identical  with  English  8.  The  parts  of  speech  are 
used  with  « :  bie  5lc^^,  bie  %btx^,  bie  SBenn^. 

Weak  or  n-Declension. 

61.  Characteristics:  (e)n  in  the  plural  and  also  in  the  sin- 
gular of  mascuhne,  except  the  nominative. 

Masc.  Fem. 

Sing.  N.  ter  33ote  Whole  sing,  ^un^c 

G.  vt^  Soten 
All  through  sing,  and  plu.  Whole  plu.  ^nnQtn 

Only  feminine  and  mascuhne  nouns  belong  to  this  declen- 
sion. 

Like  3wnge  decline  all  feminines,  except :  1.  Gutter  and 
Zo6^kx.  2.  The  few  in  -ni5  and  -fal  (see  50.  1).  3.  The 
strong  of  the  3d  class  (see  53,  2). 

62.  Of  the  masculines  belong  here : 

1.  All  of  two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  e,  except  ,^afc  and 
the  doubtful  strong  ones  sub  4,  1st  class  (see  46). 


14  DECLENSTOK   OF  NOUNS.  [63- 

2.  The  following  wliicli  generally  do  not  show  the  e,  which 
belongs  to  them:  tier  Sdr,  33auer,  ^urf(^,  gutrft,  ^in!,  ©ed,  (S3efell(e), 
®raf,  ^ageftola,  ^elt),  ^;err,  ipivte,  3nfaffe,  ?i}^en[(^,  ^o^r,  5^an*,  D^fe, 
^rinj,  ^fau,  ©pa^,  ©prog,  Steinme^,  2;^or  (fool),  25orfa^r, 

3.  Many  nouns  of  foreign  origin,  which  are  difficult  to  tell 
from  strong  nouns,  many  of  them  names  of  persons  and  ani- 
mals. They  generally  end  in  -t,  ~nt,  -ft,  with  the  suffix  -Qxap^, 
-ax^,  -frat,  -109(e),  -nom,  e.  g.,  ^oe't,  53ant)i't,  3^raeli't,  ^atrio't, 
Strc^ite'ft,  ^ome't,  ^(ane't,  ^onfona'nt,  Stute'nt,  ^^atita'ft,  2:ele9ra'|)i 
©eogra'p^,  ^atria'rd?,  9JJona'rd),  5lutofra't,  l^emofra't,  2lftroIo'9(e), 
^^ilolo'ge,  Stftrono'm,  £)e!ono'm  (pohte  for  "  farmer ")  ;  also 
3:9ra'nn. 

4.  Some  names  of  nationalities  in  -ar,  and  -er,  e.  g.,  ter 
ll'ngar,  33ul9a'r(e),  Zoia'x,  S3aier,  ^ommer,  Gaffer* 

5.  The  adjective  used  as  a  noun  when  preceded  by  the  arti- 
cle (see  220). 

Remark.— An  isolated  form  is  now  ,,auf  (Srben."  (Srbe  was  either  weak  or  strong. 
But  „in  (5t)ren,"  „mtt  gveuben"  are  old  datives  plural  (see  434, 1).  Notice  the  spelling 
llomgin,  pi.  tbntginnen. 

Mixed  Declension. 

63.     Chanictoristics :  G.  sing,  (e)^,  the  whole  pi.  (c)tt. 

Only  mascuUne  and  neuter  nouns  belong  to  this  declension, 
and  very  few  have  not  double  forms  for  genitive  singular  and 
for  the  plural.     The  following  generally  belong  here: 

1.  3luge,  ^tii,  Snbe,  (55eyatter,  ^cmD,  Worker,  ?!}?aft,  mum,  Dl)r, 
^attto'ffel,  ©c^merj,  (See,  (3tarf^eI,  (Btaat*  9^ad)Kir,  Untertlum,  ^Setter 
sometimes  retain  in  genitive  singular  the  (e)n  of  their  former 
declension.  S3auer,  peasant  sub  62,  2  is  sometimes  classed  here. 

I^a^  ^erj  inflects  G.  t)e5  ^ergen^,  D.  bent  Jpcrscn,  A.  ba5  ^erj; 
allowing  for  its  being  a  neuter,  which  always  has  nominative 
and  accusative  singular  alike,  it  really  comes  under  1st  Class, 
strong,  sub  4  (see  46).  *3 (^merj  rarely  has  (Scbmerjen^.  Der  ©porn, 


64]  DECLENSIOl^  OF  NOUNS.  16 

beg  ©porng,  has  taken  an  -n  in  the  singular,  but  the  old  weak 
plural  ©poren  is  still  the  rule,  though  "Sporuen  occurs.  Z^xonm, 
borrowed  in  M.  H.  G.  <  Gr.-L.  thronos,  is  very  rare.  The 
plural  of  X)ortt  is  either  "Dome  (old)  or  generally  'Dornen ;  also 
Dbrner. 

The  mixed  declension  is  quite  modern,  and  does  not  exist  in  M.  H.  G. 

2.  Foreign  nouns  in  -or  (o  long  and  accented  in  the  plural, 
short  and  unaccented  in  the  singular),  e.  g.,  tier  I^o'ftor,  ^te 
1)o!to'ren,  tcr  ^rofe'ffor,  tie  ^rofeffo'ren.  Also  ^n\t'tt,  3titere'ffe, 
3ume'I,  ©tatu't,  and  others. 

Colloquially  one  hears  sometimes  -n  after  nouns  in  -et  and  -er :  bie  §ummern,  lobsters; 
6tief  ein,  boots ;  but  they  are  not  to  be  imitated. 


Declension  of  Foreign  Nouns. 

64.  Those  which  are  fully  naturalized  come  under  the 
declensions  already  treated  of.  It  remains  to  speak  of  those 
not  at  all  or  partly  naturalized,  and  their  inflection  is  very 
irregular  and  complicated. 

1.  Those  that  retain  their  foreign  inflection,  e.  g.,  ^i\u€ 
(£Wtw^/3em  St)rifa;  iD^ari'a,  9)^ariae;  ?i}Zot)u^,  pi.  ?0^obi ;  SajHpl- 
(Eafu^  ;  S^erub,  pi.  S^erubim  ;  Sonto,  pi.  (Eonti  ;  @ae!ulum,  pi. 
©aefula;  Sorb,  pi.  SorJg;  Jiempu^,  pi.  3:empora.  Their  number 
is  decreasing. 

2.  Those  which  take  a  German  plural  ending,  -en  for 
instance,  and  do  not  inflect  in  the  singular,  e.  g, :  ba^  Drama, 
pi.  'Dramen  ;  3:l}ema,  pi.  2;l)emen  ;  Snbioi'Duum,  pi.  3ttbioibuen. 
®Iobu^,  Si^t^mug.  But  these  are  also  found  with  -i  in  geni- 
tive singular,  and  then  come  under  the  mixed  declension. 

3.  Nouns  whose  foreign  plural  ended  in  -ia  take  -ten: 
(Stubium,  pi.  @tubten  ;  ®^mna[tum,  pi.  ©^mnaften.  The  ending 
of  the  singular  may  have  been  lost,  and  they  have  -^  in  geni- 
tive singular,  as  Slboe'rb,  ^Partici')),  <Sem-ina'r,  'Mmxa'i,  ^^ofp'l,  pi. 


16  DECLENSIOK   OF   NOUNS.  [65- 

^iDijerlnen,  gofftUen,  etc.  Notice  ^ri'ma^,  ^rima'ten;  5l'tlag,  5lt(a'n^ 
ten ;  ^rift^,  ^'rifen.  On  the  whole,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  ir- 
regularity, and  therefore  freedom,  in  the  inflection  of  foreign 
words. 

Declension  of  Proper  Nouns. 

65.  1.  The  names  of  nations  and  peoples  are  inflected  both 
in  the  singular  and  plural.  Those  in  -er  (except  ^aier  and 
^ommer,  where  -er  is  not  suffix,  denoting  origin)  go  according 
to  1st  Class  (strong).  All  the  others  go  according  to  the 
n-declension  :  Cer  hamburger,  te^  ^amburgerg,  etc.,  D.  pi.  ben 
^amburgern.  But  ter  (Sac^fe,  U^  ©ac^fen;  ber  ^reu§e,  U^  5)reufen, 
etc. 

2.  Certain  geographical  names  (see  147),  w!iich  always 
have  the  definite  article,  are  treated  like  any  common  noun, 
e.  g.,  Der  9lt)ein,  De^  9t^ein^,  ta^  g-iMgebirge  te^  -e^j  ta^  (£lfa§,  t>e^ 
Slfaffe^;  tie  ©^weig,  Ux  ©(^weij,  etc. 

3.  Names  of  persons  are  uninflected  if  preceded  by  the  arti- 
cle (an  adjective  or  title  between  article  and  name  makes  no 
diff'erence),  e.g.,'tt^  Rdxi,  teg  ^dfer^  ^arl,  tern  grofen  ^rietncb. 
If  the  title  follows  the  name,  or  if  the  name  in  the  genitive, 
modified  by  an  adjective,  stands  before  the  noun  upon  which 
it  depends,  then  the  name  takes  -i,  e.  g.,  tag  9teict|  SutttJigg  teg 
Btommen,  teg  gro§en  grietridjg  ©enerale. 

4.  Names  of  persons,  places,  and  countries  without  an  arti- 
cle take  a  genitive  in  -eg:  ®oetI)e,  (^oetl)eg;  Snglant,  (Snglantg; 
2lnna,  5tnnag.  But  names  of  males  ending  in  a  sibilant,  if 
inflected  at  all  and  an  apostrophe  is  not  preferred,  and  femi- 
nine names  in  -e,  form  a  genitive  in  -eng,  e.  g.,  Sfflax(n^,  ?^ranjeng, 
^JZarieng,  ©orticng.  Surnames  in  a  sibilant  certainly  prefer  an 
apostrophe,  e.g.,  ?!J?ufaug'  55oI!gmard)en,  O^i^^  S3erfe,  ®aufi^  Jot. 
Names  of  places  in  a  sibilant  are  constructed  with  i^oti :  tic 
Sfteii^gfrei^eit  »on  ^o'nftanj,  tie  53efeftigungen  »ott  ^ari'g. 


09]  DECLENSIOI^   OF   AJDECTIVES.  17 

66.  A  dative  and  an  accusative  in  -en  of  names  of  persons  are  liardly 
in  use  now,  as  e.g.,  ©(^illern,  ®oet^en,  ^lopfloden.  Christian  feminine 
names  retain  them  more  easily  than  masculine,  e.g.,  ^ajl  bu  2)?aricn 
0efprod}en  ?  See  68,  3.  Such  genitives  as  9)iuUer<S  5£ob,  Slanten^  ®et>urt(3tag 
are  hardly  proper. 

67.  Plurals  of  names  of  persons  are  formed  in  various 
ways.  The  general  rule  is  :  -e  for  masculine  and  -e(n)  for 
feminine  names,  e,  g.,  ^einric^e,  ^arieu  ;  but  also  53run^ilte, 
Slifabete*  -^  forms  the  plural  of  masculines  ending  in  a  vowel 
and  of  feminines  in  -a:  3{nna^,  ^ugo^» 

68.  1.  Here  also  belongs  the  plural  of  surnames  denoting  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family,  formed  by  -^  if  ending  in  a  consonant  not  a  sibilant ; 
by  -(e)n  if  ending  in  a  vowel  or  a  sibilant  (occurs  only  in  familiar  lan- 
guage however),  e.  g.,  ©teirtbruggen,  the  Steinbriigges ;  ©u^lingi^,  the 
Suhling  family  ;  ^U(f^.  Other  endings  for  the  plural,  generally  of  for- 
eign names  however,  are  -ne,  -nen :  Sato,  Satone;  <Sci))ionen,  Dttone,  and 
Dttonm ;  but  the  first  n  belongs  to  the  stem  of  course.  Compare  L, 
Scipio,  Scipionis.     This  ^  was  perhaps  originally  a  G.  sing. 

2.  Biblical  names  retain  foreign  inflection :  Sijangelium  S^iattliaei,  tn  Sefu 
S^rijlo,  5Wartae  ^eimfuc^ung. 

3.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rule  in  the  classical  writers 
before  Goethe's  death  is  not  the  rule  now.  Lessing  wrote  be(3  !2utt;er(3,  bc^ 
2)?elani^t^on(3 ;  Goethe,  Ceiben  bc<5  iungen  SBert^ersJ.  The  dative  and  accusa- 
tive in  -en  are  the  rule  in  them,  the  exception  now,  §al>en  <Sie  ^arkn 
gef^riekn,  Sii:^elmen  gefuc^t  ? 


DECLENSION   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE. 

69.  The  adjective  is  inflected  according  to  two  sys- 
tems of  declension,  the  Strong  and  the  Weak.  It  is 
inflected  strong  when  there  is  no  limiting  word,  before 
it ;  weak,  when  there  is  an  article  or  demonstrative 
pronoun.     It  is  uninflected  in  the  predicate. 


18  DECLENSIOK   OF  ADJECTIVES.  [70- 


1.  Strong  : 

masc. 

fern. 

neuter. 

common  gender. 

Sing,  N.  guter 

gute 

gute^ 

Plu,  N.  gute 

G.  o;iXk^ 

guter 

gute^ 

G.  guter 

D.  gutem 

guter 

gutem 

D.  guten 

A.  guten 

gute 

gute^ 

A.  gute 

2.  Weak: 

masc. 

fern. 

neuter. 

Sing,  N.  ter 

gute 

tic  gute 

ba^  gute 

A.  ^en 

guten 

Me  gute 

ba^  gute 

All  other  cases,  sing,  and  plu.^  guten. 

Notice  that  the  nominative  and  accusative  singular  of  the 
feminine  and  neuter  forms  are  alike. 

70.  After  ein,  !ein,  and  the  possessive  pronouns  the  adjec- 
tive is  strong  in  the  nominative  singular  of  all  genders  and  in 
the  accusative  singular  of  feminine  and  neuter,  since  it  is  like 
the  nominative.     The  whole  pi.  is  weak. 

Sg,  N.  ein  grower  'Dic^ter,     eine  rote  ^trfc^e,    ein  :^errli*e^  ®eHd)t 
G.  eine^  grogen  X)id^terg,  einer  roten  ilirfd)c,  eine^  ^errli^en  @ebi(^teg 
D.  einem  gro^en  Dic^ter,  einer  roten  ^irfc^e,  einem  l)errli(^en  ®et)ic^te 
A.  einen  grogen  "Dieter,  eine  rote  ^irfc^e,   ein  ^errlidje^  (^ecidjt. 

71.  Adjectives  ending  in  -el,  -er,  -en  as  a  rule  drop  the  e  of  these 
suflBxes  when  inflected,  sometimes  however  the  e  of  the  case-ending  -en, 
e.g.,  cbel,  cbler,  eble,  ebleg;  magcr,  wagrer,  magre,  magre^;  eigen,  eigner,  eigne, 
eigneS ;  but  ^eitern  and  ^eitren,  eblen  and  ebeln.  Those  in  -er  like  to  retain 
both  e's:  tietterer,  |eitere,  ^eitere(3.  Note  therefore:  ©in  magrer  Dc^fe,  eine<3 
ttiagern  or  magren  Dcfefen,  etc.;  ber  ^eitere  or  ^ettre  |)immel,  bed  ^eiteren,  '^ettren, 
or  ^eitern  ^immclig,  etc.;  ntein  eignc<3  ^<x\x^,  mcine*^  eigencn  or  eignen  ^aufe<3,  etc. 
For  ^^&),  ^o|er,  ^o^e,  '^8|eg  see  490,  3,  b. 

72.  The  genitive  singular  masculine  and  neuter,  -e^,  is  now  so  regu- 
larly replaced  by  -en,  that  this  should  perhaps  appear  in  the  paradigm. 
Though  strictly  according  to  rule,  -e^  has  become  the  exception;  -en  has 
prevailed  since  the  17th  century.  Voss,  Klopstock,  and  Grimm  opposed 
it.  Goethe  favors  it.  Sin,  fein,  the  possessive  and  the  demonstrative 
pronouns  never  allow  -en  for  -es^;  never  feinen  9)?anne^,  biefen  SBuc^e^. 


75]  COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.  19 


COMPARISON   OF   THE    ADJECTIVE 

73.     Adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  the  inflectional 
suffixes  -er  and  -(e)  ft,  e.  g. : 


positive. 

comparative. 

Buperlative. 

iy^n 

iiinger 

iungft 

f(fe5tt 

fd^oner 

fc^bnfl 

rci* 

rei(^er 

rei# 

Those  in  -el,  -en,  -er  lose  this  c  before  the  comparative  -er ; 
but  retain  it  and  lose  the  e  of  -efi  in  the  superlative,  e.  g., 
mager,  magrer,  magerft ;  Junfel,  iunfler,  tunlelft.  e  in  -eft  is  as  a 
rule  retained  after  I),  t,  ^,  \t,  3,  rc^,  ^,  and  ft,  but  not  necessarily, 
e,  g.,  lautefte,  gen?iffefte,  fii^efie.  ®rb^te  alone  is  classical,  but  in 
the  spoken  language  fii^e,  ^ei§te,  fur3te,  etc.,  are  heard.  „^od)" 
retains  the  former  %  in  the  comparative  l^b^er,  and  ^  in  na|e 
becomes  c^:  ndc^jl*     See  490,  3,  h. 

74.  The  umlaut  generally  takes  place,  but  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  tell  when  it  does  not.  A  not  small  number  are  doubt- 
ful, e.  g.,  Ha§,  gefunt),  fromm,  etc.  No  umlaut  in  :  1.  Those 
with  the  stem- vowel  an,  e.g.,  lau,  Hau,  etc.  2.  Foreign  ones: 
6ra^,  nobel,  etc.  3.  Participles:  befnd^t,  getvanU,  etc.  4.  Deriva- 
tives :  (Irafkr,  f(^al!^aft,  langfam,  wngIauHi(^,  etc.  5.  33nnt,  Uanf, 
bumpf,  falf(^,  flacb,  fro:^,  ^o^^l,  :^ott,  ta^,  tlar,  la|m,  laf ,  hi,  matt, 
morf(^,  |3(att,  )jlump,  rafc^,  ro^,  runt),  fanft,  fatt,  f^Iaff,  fd^Ianf,  fc^roff, 
ftarr,  ftolg,  ftraff,  toll,  ijoll,  wa^r,  ^a^m,  sart. 

s 

75.  The  comparative  and  superlative  forms  are  declined 
just  like  the  positive.     Examples  : 

®rb§erer  @pa^,  grb§ereg  or  grbferen  ©pa§e^,  etc. ;  ter  grbgere 
®)ja§,  te^  groferen  ®pa§e^,  etc. ;  etn  grbgerer  ®)ja§ 

^larfteg  SSafler,  bag  flarfte  SBajfer,  ein  flarfte^  Saffer. 

Sblerer  mam,  ber  ebfere  ^ann,  ein  eblerer  9}Zann;  eitelfler  33urf(%, 
ber  eitelfte  33urf^,  ein  eitelfter  Surfc^. 


20  COMPARISON   or  ADJECTIVES.  [76- 

ipeifrer  ©dnger,  ber  t)eifrere  ©dngcr,  ein  ^eifrerer  ©dnger,   G.  eine^ 
^eifreren  ©dnger^,  etc. ;  ter  ^eiferfte  (Sanger. 

76.     1.  Irregular  Comparison. 
By  the  use  of  different  stems : 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

gut  +  good 

bejfer,  adv.  ba§  +  better 

6ejl  +  best 

»iel 

me^r  +  more 

meijl  +  most 

me^rer 

me^rft 

(gerittg  or  menig) 

minter 

minteft 

®ut  and  i)iel  are  never  compared  regularly,  ^e^rer  and  me^rft 
are  due  to  double  comparison.  „Wd)x{t,"  though  occurring  in 
Goethe  and  Schiller,  is  not  classical.  Wth  and  minber  are  really 
not  adjectives,  but  are  used  adverbially  and  substantively.  „Saf  „ 
(me^r,  very,  much)  is  now  archaic.  „to6^  k§  t)e^t  it)n  Der  linle 
^<inn"  (Bii.).  prBag  (onward);  „k§"  also  means  fe^r,  ftarl:  „X)a^ 
nta(^t,  er  t^^dt  fi(^  ba§  |ert)or"  (Sch.).  „Unb  ti?arb  ni(^t  me:^r  gefe^n'' 
(G.).     ^iDlorgen  ein  me^rere^  =  to-morrow  (I  will  write)  more. 


2.  Defective  and  Redundant  Comparison. 

a.  There  is  a  class  of  adjectives  derived  from  adverbs  and 

•epositions  : 

Adv.  or  prep.                 Comparative. 

Superlative. 

(au§er)                  duger 

du§erfl 

(Winter)                  Mnter 

^interft 

(inner)                   inner 

innerft 

(nieber)                  nieDer  (rare) 

nieberjl 

(ob[er])                 ober 

oberft 

(unter)                   unter 

imterft 

(t)or,  fort)               ijorter 

»orDerj^ 

For  the  derivation  of  these  adverbs,  see  551,  3.  The 
superlative  suffix  -ft  is  added  to  the  comparative.  This  is 
due  to  their  former  full  comparison,  as  for  instance,  O.  H.  G. 
pos.  Jdntaro,    comp.  hintaroro,    superl.  hintardst.      The  pres- 


77J 


NUMERALS. 


21 


ent  comparatives  Jintcre,  obere  are  not  even  now  felt  as  real 
comparatives  ;  du§er  has  a  spurious  umlaut ;  „b&erfte"  and 
„forberfte"  are  colloquial ;  „i)orter"  comes  from  „fort/'  O.  H.  G. 
fordar  ;  compare  Eng.  further,  which  has  nothing  to  do  with 
far. 

Positive  Comparative.  Superlative. 

6.    (mittd)  +  middle     mtttler  mittelft 

(e|er,  adv.)  +  ere     erft  +  erst 
te^t  +  last 
(fiirber,  adv.)  giirft  (subst. )  +  first 


Positive. 

(mittel)  +  middle 
(e^e,  conj.) 
(lag  +  late) 
(fiir) 


The  first  compares  regularly  like  an  adjective  in  -eL  The 
positive  occurs  only  in  compounds  now,  and  the  comparative 
has  the  force  of  the  positive. 


77.  Cardinals. 

cin^,  -1-  one 

gmei,  -f-  two 

trei,  -h  three 

^ier,  +  four 

fiinf,  +  five 

fed)^,  +  six 

fteben,  +  seven 

acbt;  +  eight 

neun,  +  nine 

je^n,  +  ten 

clf,  cilf,  bif,  +  eleven 

jwelf,  gtvblf,  +  twelve 

tireije^ti,  +  thirteen 

vierje^n,  4-  fourteen 

fiinfje^n,  +  fifteen 

fe(^(^)3e^n,  +  sixteen 

Sttjanjig,  +  twenty 

eitt  unt)  jtvanjig,  -f-  twenty-one 


NUMERALS. 


gmei  unD  swansig,  +  twenty-two 

brei  unt)  sman^ig,  -f-  twenty-three 

treigig,  +  thirty 

tin  Uttb  treigig,  +  thirty-one 

ijteraig,  +  forty 

fitnfsia,  funfaig,  +  fifty 

fed^^aig,  fed^^i^lr  +  sixty 

(teB(en)jtg,  +  seventy 

acbtjtg,  +  eighty 

neuttgig,  +  ninety 

^untert  (Ca^  ^unbert),  +  a  hun- 
dred 

(ein)  ^uttbert  unb  ein(^),  +  a  hun- 
dred and  one 

(cin)  lunbert  unb  jtuet,  +  a  hun- 
dred and  two 

(ein)  ^nnbert  (unb)  ae:^n,  +  a 
hundred  and  ten 


22  NUMERALS.  [78- 

(ein)  ^untert  unt)  Jlvanjig,  +  a  hundred  and  twenty 

(tin)  §uncert  ein  unD  jnjanjig,  +  a  hundred  and  twenty-one 

(ein)  ^unbert  ac^t  unt)  ac^tgtg,  +  a  hundred  and  eighty-eight 

gnjei^Utttert,  +  two  hundred 

trci^untiert  fed^^  unt  fteb^ig,  +  three  hundred  and  seventy-six 

taufent)  (ta^  2;aufent)),  +  a  thousand 

(ein)  tanfent)  unb  ein(^),  +  a  thousand  and  one 

(ein)  tanfenb  tvd  unb  ^iergig,  +  a  thousand  and  forty-three 

(ein)  tanfent)   ein^nnbert  or  elf^unbert,  +  a  thousand  and  one 

hundred 
ein  tanfent  ad)t^nnbert  brei  ur(o  ac^tjig  or  ac^tge^n  ^nnbert  brei  nnb 

a^tjig,  +  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three 
brei(mal)  ^nnbert  tanfent),  +  three  hundred  thousand 
eine  §iJltUio'n,  +  a  million 
eine  ?!)ZiIIia'rbe,  a  thousand  milHons 
eine  33ilIio'n,  4-  a  billion 


78.  Inflection. 

Fully  inflected 

are  only 

dn^,  imi,  brei,  as 

follows : 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neutei 

•. 

N.  einer 

eine 

ein(e^ 

)^ 

G.  eine^ 

einer 

eine^, 

,  when  used  substantively. 

N.  ein 

eine 

ein, 

like   the 
when 

)    indefinite    article 
used  attributively. 

„^^  war  einer  bem^s  jn  ^erjen  ging" 

(Ch.)  ;  „ 

ein^  i)on  kiben,"  one 

of  two  things. 

N.  awei 

G.  gtueier 

D. 

ameien 

A.  anjci 

N.  brei 

G.  breier 

D. 

breien 

A.  brei 

79.  Older  inflections  were  masc.  ^mtn,  fem.  jwo.  3wei,  the  neuter, 
has  crowded  out  the  masculine  and  feminine  forms,  which  may  still 
be  found  in  the  older  modern  classics,  and  still  in  use  in  the  S.  G. 

dialects.    9Ba^  jwcien  red^t  tjl,  {ft  breicit  ju  engc.    Durc^  jweicr  Bengen  9Wunb 
toirb  aUtmaxtd  bic  SBa^r^ett  funb  (F.,  I.  3013).    3tt>ecn,bic  mit  mtr  iikrfu^ren 


81] 


PRONOUNS. 


23 


....  (Uh.),  3tX)io  ^ofen  c  i  n  e  <5  %u^^,  cut  from  the  same  cloth.  „3wo 
Sungfern  in  ben  bejlen  Sa^ren"  (Gellert).  The  plurals  jwcie  and  brcie  are  in 
analogy  with  the  strong  noun  and  adjective  declensions  From  4-12 
the  e  in  the  plural  represents  0.  H.  G.  i  when  they  were  i-stems,  funfe  < 
finifi.  The  only  other  case  in  which  these  numbers  are  inflected  is  the 
dative  plural  (in  -en):  auf  aUtn  SJiercn  friec^en,  atle  S)lere  »on  fid)  ftredfeu;  mit 
©ed)fcn  fa^ren;  ju  !Drcien.  Bweier,  jweien  are  according  to  the  adjective 
inflection. 

80.  Ordinals. 

The  ordinals  are  formed  from  the  cardinals  by  adding  -te 
to  the  numbers  from  2-19,  and  -fte  from  20  on. 

(ler)  erjle,  +  first  fedjfte,  +  sixth 

giveite,  4-  second  )>c^^el)nte,  +  sixteenth 

tritte,  +  third  ^tvanjigfte,  +  twentieth 

loierte,  +  fourth  l^untertftc,  +  hundredth 

fiinfte,  +  fifth  taufent^fte,  +  thousandth 
Their  inflection  is  that  of  adjectives ;  jmeiter,  ter  ^mik,  tin 

3»eitev;  G.  eineiJ  jweiten.  See  438, 1. 


PRONOUNS. 
81.  Personal  Pronouns. 


Special  forms  for  gender  in  the 

Common  gender 

'. 

singular. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

III. 

Reflexive. 

Masc.            Fem. 

Neuter. 

Sing.  N.  ic^ 

tu 

er           fte 

ed 

G.  meiner 

fceiner 

feincr 

feiner       i^rer 

feiner 

(metn) 

(bcin) 

(fein) 

(fein) 

(fein,  eg) 

D.  mir 

ttr 

M 

i^m         i|r 

i^m 

A.  mic^ 

tic^ 
i|r 

ftd) 

m          fte 

eiJ 

Plu.  N.  wiv 

fte 

G.  unfer 

euer 

— 

i|rer 

(unfrer) 

(eurer) 

D.  m^ 

euc^ 

m 

i^nen 

A.  un0 

eit4 

fid) 

fie 

24  PROKOUNS.  [82- 

Tbe  first  and  second  persons  and  the  plural  of  the  third 
person  are  of  common  gendfr.  The  singular  of  the  third 
person  has  a  form  for  each  ge  iider. 

82.  In  the  genitive  singular  the  longer  forms  in  -er  are 
common;  the  others  are  now  archaic  and  poetic,  e.g.,  „35ergi§^ 
metnnii^t"  (the  flower).  „3(^  t)enfe  !I)ein/'  etc.  (G.).  The  length- 
ened forms  eurer,  imfrer  are  not  yet  sanctioned,  though  common 
in  the  spoken  language,  and,  especially  eurer,  not  very  rare  in 
the  classics,  e.  g.,  „(2Bie  er)  bei  2:afel  (Surer  felbft  nidjt  ac^tet"  (Sch.). 
„I^ann  ktarf  e^  uuferer  ni(^t„  (Sch.).  The  genitive  singular  neu- 
ter „ii"  occurs  still  in  certain  constructions,  generally  called 
an  accusative:  „(Sr  ^at  e^  leineu  ^e^(  ta^  .  ♦  .  ."(Sch.).  3c^  6in 
eg  mut)e»  e^  nimmt  mi^  SCuuter.    (See  183, 199,  2.) 

83.  Reflexive  Pronouns. 

For  the  first  and  second  persons  the  personal  pronouns 
serve  as  such,  e.  g.,  ic^  fiird^te  mid),  wir  freuen  uu^,  i^r  f^eut  eu(^. 
For  the  third  person  the  forms  are  made  up  of  the  personal 
and  the  old  reflexive  pronouns  : 

MaBC.  and  neuter.       Fern.  Common  gender. 

Sing.  G.  feiuer      (iker,  pers.  pron.)      Plu.  (i^rer,  pers.  pron. ) 
D.,  A.  fic^         M  P* 

84.  The  reciprocal  pronoun  has  no  special  form ;  as  such 
are  used  uu^,  eu^,  fic^,  einan^er,  meaning  "each  other,"  "one 
another."    Ex.:  3^r  fd?k(^t  (M&i.     2Cnr  |Uelten  einankr  nic^t. 

The  Possessive  Pronouns. 

85.  The  possessive  pronouns  are:  mein  +  my;  tein  +  thy; 
fein,his,its;  i^r,  her;  unfer  +  our;  euer  +  5'our;  i^r,  their;  ^^x, 
your ;  ber  meine  +  mine  ;  ter  teine  +  thine,  etc. ;  ter  meinige  + 
mine;  ter  fceinige  +  thine,  etc. 

The}'  are  inflected  like  adjectives  (see  69)  ;  but  mein,  t>ein, 


87]  PRONOUNS.  25 

fein,  iinfer,  cuer,  i()r,  like  the  indefinite  article  (see  38),  in  which 
the  nominative  singnlar  masculine  and  the  nominative  and  ac- 
cusative singular  neuter  are  uninflected,  e.  g. : 

Neuter.  Feminine. 

Hing.  N.,  A.  mcin  %yx^  fceitte  9iid)tc 

G.  mctnc^^  3:u(^e^  Reiner  ^\^{t 

D.  meinem  %\x^t  tetner  9lid^te 

Flu.  N.,  A.  meine  %\x^tx  beine  5^id)ten 

Gr.  mciner  %\xHx  teiner  ^^lic^ten 

D.  meinen  3:uc()ern  fceinen  ^^lid^tcn 

For  the  declensiou  of  l)er  meine,  ter  nieinige,  see  the  weak 
adjective,  69,  2.  The  rest  stand  uninflected  used  predica- 
tively  and  when  they  follow  the  noun  (now  archaic),  e.  g., 
S3a5  metn  tfl,  fca^  ift  tein  unt)  ma^  tjtxn  ift,  ta^  ift  mein  (B.).  T)u 
baft  tai^  ^erge  mein  fo  gan^  genommen  ein  (Song). 

86.  (Suer,  Sure,  ©elner,  ©einc  are  often  abbreviated  into  ©».,  ©r.,  ©e. :  ©c.  aWajcftat, 
(5».  9SD()tcjc&orcn.  ^t^ro  is  archaic,  «.  g-.,  3t)i-D  ®nabcn.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the  old 
G.  fcevo  (see  89).  It  does  not  occur  before  the  seventeenth  century.  It  stands  for  mas- 
culine and  feminine  sing,  and  pi.  in  titles:  Sfiro  ©Itabett,  ©miltettj,  2)ur(^IaU(^t. 

87.  The  possessive  pronouns  form  certain  compounds  with  wegen, 
l^alkn,  xt)\Uix\,  and  glelc^en.  Ex.  :  meinetracgen,  t|rettt)egen,  meinet^alkn,  i^rea== 
gletc^cn,  cure'3glcid)en.  The  compounds  with  wegen  and  ^alkn  are  really 
D.  plu.  metncn  wegcn,  beinen  ^alben.  After  n  sprang  up  the  excrescent  t  — 
meinentwc(\en,  beinent^alben,  current  in  the  sixteenth  century.  These  hecame 
the  now  classical  meinctwegen,  belnet^alben,  though  the  longest  forms  are 
still  heard ;  also  meintl^al^en,  even  mctnt^^alkn,  occur,  but  they  are  not 
good.  SSKeinettnillen  <  metnentttjitten  <  mcinentoiEen  are  original  accusatives, 
e.  g.,  urn  meinen  wttten  =  for  my  sake. 

The  origin  of  ifere^gleid)en,  etc.,  is  not  so  clear.  ©leii'^en  is  without 
doubt  the  adjective  used  as  a  noun  and  governing  a  preceding  genitive, 
which  was  at  first  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun  and  became  later 
the  possessive  pronoun  agreeing  with  gtei^en  (M.  H.  G.  8%ne  gelichen). 
But  whence  (5  ?  Is  it  the  genitive  sign  -e^  in  compound  nouns,  Siek^^ 
16rtef,  ?0?itta9^ilunbe,  which  was  looked  upon  as  a  mere  connective  ?  (See 
518, 2.)    In  M.  H.  G.  was  a  Gen.  mines,  dines,  which  with  miner,  stood  for 


26 


PRONOUNS. 


[88- 


ndn,  almost  exclusively  before  selhea.   But  beine^gleic^en  is  not  old  enough 
to  connect  with  M.  H.  G.  dines  selbes. 

Other  compounds  with  the  possessive,  like  meine^teil^,  meinerfeit^  (see 
552),  are  clearly  genitives. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

88.  These  are  :  1.  kr,  tie,  bag  +  the,  that ;  2.  biefcr,  biefe, 
ticfe^  +  this ;  jener,  jene,  jene^,  that,  +  yon.  The  first,  when 
used  with  the  noun,  differs  only  in  accent  and  not  in  declen- 
sion from  the  article  (see  39).  When  used  substantively 
(without  the  noun)  it  declines  : 


Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter. 

Common  gender. 

Sing.  N.  Ux 

bie 

"tiiii 

Plu.  Die 

G.  beffen 

beren 

beffen 

teren 

beg 

ber 

beg 

berer  (ter) 

D.  bem 

ber 

bem 

benen 

A.  ten 

bie 

bag 

tie 

89.     The  spelling 

of 

M^»  for 

M^' 

'  is  unwarranted. 

It  implies  that 

it  is  an  ahbreviation  of  „beffen,"  which  it  is  n(  t. 

wIDero"  is  the  O.  H.  G.  form  retained  in  certain  phrases,  as  in  bero 
®naben.  !Derentwegen,  ^\ji\\Ux[,  etc.,  are  forms  like  meinettDe^en,  etc.,  but 
rarely  lose  the  n  before  t.     For  their  explanation  see  87. 

Masc. 

biefer 
Jener 


90. 


Fern. 

biefe 
iene 


Neuter. 

biefeg  and  bieg  +  this 
jeneg  +  yon,  that 

These  are  declined  like  strong  adjectives,  and  stand  adjec- 
tively  and  substantively:  biefe  i^^ter,  biefeg  2;intenfa9,  jener  33aum. 
3cneg  bort  ift  mein  33ud^. 

91  Another  group  of  demonstrative  pronouns,  sometimes 
called  "  determinative,"  consists  of  : 

Masc.  Fem, 

bcrjenige  biejenige 

bcrfelk  biefel&e 

biefelMge 

felMge 

W(e) 


bcrfetbige 

feI6er,  felbjl  (uninnected),  felbiger 

fold)(er) 


Neuter. 

bagjenige,  the,  that 
bagfelbe,  the  same 
bagfelbige,  the  same 
felbigeg,  the  same 
fol^(eg),  4-  such 


02]  PRONOUKS.  27 

1.  The  inflection  of  the  first  three  is  that  of  „ter"  and  a 
weak  adjective,  e.  g.,  terjenige,  fce^jenigen,  temienigen,  etc.  Their 
composition  is  apparent,  -ig  is  the  usual  adjective  suffix  (see 
525,  1). 

In  the  16th  century  ber  is  still  separated  from  felb-,  jen-,  and  earlier 
the  latter  were  even  declined  strong,  ber  jener,  bem  felbem,  but  they  soon 
followed  the  n  declension.  „X)er  iene,"  from  which  wberienige"  developed, 
becomes  obsolete  in  the  17th  century.  w^DerfelMge"  <  wberfclbe.".  Accent : 
be'rjemge,  but  berfe'lbc. 

2.  ©cIBer  is  a  stereotyped  form  hke  ijottcr,  and  felbfl  is  a  geni- 
tive singular  of  [elb,  M.  H.  G.  selhes.  The  excrescent  t  appears 
first  in  the  13  th  century. 

3.  (Sol^  is  inflected  like  any  adjective,  even  with  -en  in  the 
genitive  singular,  e.g.,  foId)enfalI^,  folc^eu  ©lauben^.  It  may  be 
uninflected,  always  if  followed  by  ein  and  generally  if  followed 
by  another  adjective.  An  apostrophe  after  folc^  is  uncalled 
for.  (Sold)  ciu  ^iJlann,  fol(%  f(^bne  33Iumen.  (Eine  foldje  Selei^igung 
!ann  i(^  ni(^t  »ergeffen.    21U  cr  folc^ee  fa^  .  .  .  .  (B.). 

92.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

2Ber  +  who ;  ma5  +  what ;  meldjer  -|-  which  ;  tva^  fiir  ein, 
what  sort  of. 

1.  2Cer  declines : 

Masc.  and  fern.  Neuter. 

N.  mx  wag 

G.  weffen,  mi  weffen,  mi 

D.  mm  

A.  men  tt)a^ 

2Bc§  or  it>ef(3:  roe^  as  bcfTcn  t  bc^.  See  89.  The  genitive  lengthened 
by  -en  like  beS  >  beffen  was  not  yet  established  in  the  16th  century, 
5i3e<3  is  now  archaic,  except  in  compounds,  e.gr.,  we^^alb,  we^wegcn.  For 
weffent^al&eit,  see  beffent-,  bercnt^albeit/  87,  89. 

2,  3Belc^  +  which,  what,  declines  strong.     Before  „ein"  it  is 


28  PROITOUNS.  [08- 

always,  and  before  an  adjective  it  is  often  left  uninflected, 
also  in  poetry  when  used  adjectively:  SBeld)  ^etiimmel  (Strafen 
auf !  (Sch.).  mi&i  tin  ^efii^I  (R  1011).  SBel^er  miwxn  mx  e^  ? 
3.  2Ca^  fiir,  toa^  fiir  ein,  what,  what  kind  of.  ,,'din"  alone  is 
inflected  like  the  indefinite  article  if  used  adjectively;  like  a 
strong  adjective  if  used  substantively:  „2Ba^  fiir  53er9e,  \va^  fiir 
2Biiften  ♦  .  .  ♦  trennen  un^  tenn  no(^?"  (Le.).  SSa^  fiir  ein  ^aum 
i(l  i)ag  ?    2Ca^  fiir  Dinte  ift  tie^  ? 

93.  Relative  Pronouns. 

1.  !Der,  tie,  bag,  which,  +  that,  who,  declines  like  the  demon- 
strative, but  the  genitive  plural  is  never  berer  :  Reiner  fiegte  nod) 
ter  nid^t  geftritten  ^at  (Bo.). 

2.  2BeI(^er,  jvelc^e,  tt»elc^eg,  +  which,  who,  that,  always  declines 
strong:  T)a0  33n(^,  m^t^  i(^  gelefen  t)abe. 

3.  SSer,  +  who,  whoever.  The  inflection  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  interrogative:  S3er  eg  (an(^)  fet,  whoever  it  be. 

4.  3Cag,  +  what,  whatsoever.  The  inflection  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  interrogative  :  2Bag  er  (an(^)  fagen  ma^,  no  matter 
what  he  says. 

Indefinite  Pronouns  and  Indefinite  Numerals. 

94.  Slnberer,  anbere,  anbereg,  +  other,  different :  ber  anbere, 
bie  anbere,  bag  anbere,  bie  anberen.  Declined  like  any  adjective, 
used  substantively  and  adjectively. 

95.  Siner,  eine,  eineg,  +  one,  the  numeral  with  its  deriva- 
tives !ein,  none,  and  cinige,  generally  only  plural  "  some." 

(Sin-  is  always  strongly  inflected  and  stands  only  substan- 
tively. Standing  adjectively  it  is  declined  like  the  indefinite 
article  (see  39).     With  del  art. :  ber  eine,  bie  einen. 

^ein  is  inflected  like  the  indefinite  article,  but  standing 
substantively  is  declined  leiner,  feine,  !ein(e)g  x  Reiner  wlrb  aU 
^eifter  gekren  (Pro v.). 


99]  PRONOUNS.  29 

96.  (Etric^-  some  ;  ctwa^,  anything ;  jver,  anybody  ;  tt)a^,  any- 
thing, something ;  mel(^-,  some,  any ;  einig-  some. 

StUd^-  and  welc^-  are  always  inflected  strong.  The  singular 
of  ctlt(i^  is  rare,  having  the  force  of  "tolerable,"  "some":  mit 
etU(i)em  Srfolge,  with  some  success. 

97.  Compounds  with  je:  jeter,  every,  each;  jegHd»,  jcfcjreter 
(=  itUv)  stand  adjectively  and  substantively;  jetermann,  every- 
body; temant),  anybody;  niemant),  nobody. 

3et)er,  jegltc^,  jeDweber,  each,  every,  are  declined  like  strong 
adjectives.  Sfglit^  and  jetmeter  are  not  common  now ;  they 
have  the  same  meaning.  S^^^^ntann  has  only  a  genitive  singu- 
lar in  -^.  3^ '«ant>  and  niemanb  decline  :  N.  jemanb,  G.  jemant»(e)g, 
D.  jemant'em,  -ben,  A.  jemauben. 

If  jeber,  jegHd),  jebweber  are  preceded  by  the  indef.  art.,  they 
are  declined  Uke  any  adjective  preceded  by  tin,  e.  g.  cin  jeber, 
eine^  jebcn,  eiuem  jeben,  einen  jeben. 

The  accusative  and  dative  are  N.  H.  G.,  taken  from  the 
adjective  inflection.  Though  the  classics  are  full  of  these 
cases,  the  best  usage  for  the  spoken  language  favors  no  case- 
ending  for  accusative  and  dative. 

98.  ^an,  one,  any  one.  It  is  only  nominative.  The  other 
cases  are  made  up  from  ein-  or  n?ir.  3JJan  is  old  spelling  for 
^iJiann,  from  which  in  M.  H.  G.  it  was  not  distinguished.  Its 
corresponding  possessive  is  fein  :  ^an  glaufct  i^m  nid)t.  ^an 
!ann  feinen  eigenen  ^o^jf  ni<^t  cffen  (Prov.). 

99.  5*lid)t<?,  nothing,  allows  of  no  further  inflection.  It  is 
itself  the  genitive  of  M.  H.  G.  niht  =  ni-wilit  and  nio-wiht. 
Compare  Eng.  naught  =  na-wiht.  9li(^t5,  the  genitive, 
stands  for  the  emphatic  combination  nihtes  niht,  "not  a 
thing"  =  gar  md)ti5. 

3u  nii^te,  mit  nid)ten,  "  not  at  all,"  show  still  that  nidjt  was 
once  a  noun  fully  inflected:  ^effer  etwa^  tmn  xxxdp  (Prov.). 


30  CONJUGATION^. 


[100- 


100.  As  indefinite  numerals  it  is  customary  to  classify 
all  +  all;  beitie  +  both;  better  +  each  or  either;  ganj,  whole; 
lauter,  "  nothing  but; "  man^  -f  many;  me^r  +  more;  me^rerc, 
several;  tie  meiften  +  most,  the  majority;  tie  mel)rften  (=  tic 
meiften) ;  ein  paar,  a  few,  hi  "  a  pair;  '  famtlic^e,  all,  altogether; 
ta0  iibrige,  tie  iiBrigen,  the  rest;  »iel,  much,  many;  wenig,  Httle, 
few  ;  ein  lyenig,  a  little  ;  gemtg  +  enough. 

Of  these,  all,  gau3,  nianc^,  'oul,  ivenicj  may  stand  uninflected. 
Otherwise  tlie\'  are  inflected  like  adjectives :  55iel  (Steinc  QaV^ 
unt  tvenig  ^rot  (Uh.).  ®an^  X)eutf^lanb  lag  in  ^djmad)  nnl) 
©d)mera  (Mosen).     X)a£^  gan^e  Dentfc^lant  foil  e^  fein  (Arndt). 

tauter,  mel)r,  ein  paar,  ein  ivenig,  genug  are  indeclinable. 

CONJUGATION. 

101.  The  verb  varies  for  person  and  number;  for  tense 
(present  and  preterit)  and  mood  (indicative  and  subjunctive). 
From  the  present  stem  are  formed  the  imperative  and  the 
noun-forms  of  the  verb,  viz. ,  the  infinitive,  present  participle 
with  the  gerundive,  and  the  past  participle  in  -(c)t.  Accord- 
ing to  the  formation  of  the  preterit  we  distinguish  two  great 
systems  of  conjugations,  the  '^  strong '  and  the  "  weak."  The 
strong  verbs  form  the  preterit  by  substituting  a  different  stem- 
vowel  from  that  of  the  present,  e.  g.,  geben  —  gab,  tragen  —  trug ; 
the  weak,  by  adding  -(e)te  to  the  stem,  e.  g.,  loben  —  lobte, 
glauben  —  gtaubte. 

102.  The  infinitive,  the  preterit,  and  the  past  participle 
are  generally  given  as  the  "  principal  parts  "  of  a  verb.  The 
infinitive  represents  the  forms  with  the  present  stem.  Know- 
ing the  preterit  or  the  past  participle,  one  can  tell  whether  a 
verb  is  weak  or  strong.  If  the  preterit  ends  in  -(e)te  the  past 
participle  ends  in  --(e)t ;  if  the  preterit  is  strong,  the  past  par- 
ticiple ends  in  -en,  e.  g.,  fagen,  fagte,  gefagt;  faugen,  fog,  gcfogen. 


105] 


CONJUGATION. 


31 


The  infinitive  and  the  past  participle  help  form  the  compound 
tenses. 

103.    The  following  paradigms  show  the  various  inflections: 


WEAK. 

PRESENT.  PKETEBIT. 


STRONG. 


Ind. 
i(^  lobe 
fcu  lobft 
er  lobt 
ttjir  loBen 
i^r  (o6t 
fte  loben 


Ind.  andsutQ, 

(ok  Io6te 

lobefl  lobtefl 

lobe  lobte 

loben  lobten 

lobet  lobtet 

loben  lobten 


PKESENT. 

Ind. 

itnge  ffnge 

rmgjl  flngejt 

fmgt  ftnge 

ftngen  ffngeit 

ftngt  finget 

ftngen  jingen 


PRETERIT. 

Ind.  Svbj. 

fang  fange 

fangj^  fangeft 

fang  fange 

fangen  fdngen 

fangt  fanget 

fangen  fdngen 


Imp. 
2.  sg.    lobe  (tu) 
1.  pi.    loben  wir 
2        n.Ke)t(ilr) 
( loben  @ie 


Inf. 

loben 

Pres.poft., 
Oerundive. 

loben^ 

PaM  part. 
gelobt 


Imp. 
f!ng(e)  (l)u) 
ftngen  xoxx 


2.  sy. 

l.pl. 

2.»d^^"^W^W^ 
(  fmaen  @ie 


Inf. 

ftngen. 

Pres.part.t 
Oerundive. 

jingenl) 

Past  part 

gefungen 


104.  The  personal  suffixes  are: 

Sg.  1.  p.  -e,  except  for  strong  preterit. 

2.  p.  -(e)  ft  for  both  tenses  and  moods. 

3.  p.  -(e)t  for  the  present  indicative.     In  the  pres.  subj. 

and  in  the  pret.  ind.  and  subj.  the  3.  p.  is  like 
the  first. 
PL  1.  p.  -(e)tt  for  both  tenses  and  moods. 

2.  p.  -(e)t  for  both  tenses  and  moods ;  also  for  the  im- 

perative. 

3.  p.  -(e)n  for  both  tenses  and  moods. 

The  retention  or  rejection  of  the  thematic  or  connecting  voweJ  -e-  ^s  treated  later. 
See  118. 

105.  Imperative.     The  2.  p.  sg.   ends  in  -e  in  all  verbs 
excepting  those  strong  ones   that  have  the  interchange    of 


32  CONJUGATION.  [106- 

e — i  or  e — ie  in  the  2.  and  3.  p.  sg.  pres.  ind.,  e.  g,,  Zxant,  f^auc, 
hti,  Htte,  grabe,  ^ebe,  but  fprtd),  fri§,  nintm. 

106.  Infinitive.  It  always  ends  in  -en  except  in  those 
weak  verbs  in  which  it  is  preceded  by  -et,  -er  j  jvanteln, 
\uan^ern  ;  also  in  fein,  t^un,  which  are  non-thematic  verbs. 
See  449,  2. 

107.  Participles.  The  present  part,  and  the  gerundive 
always  end  in  -ent:  ^offenb,  ^elfent,  ein  Siebenber,  etn  gu  kiveifenter 
@a^,  a  proposition  to  be  demonstrated.  They  are  decUned 
like  adjectives. 

The  past  participle  is  formed  by  the  prefix  ge-,  and  the  suf- 
fix -(e) t  for  weak  verbs,  the  suffix  -en  for  strong  ones:  lieben  — 
geliebt,  Kdttern  —  geblattert,  tragen  —  getragen,  fingen  —  gefungen* 

108.  ®e-  does  not  stand: 

1.  Before  ^et§en,  lajfen,  fe^en,  ^elfen,  lernen  (?),  Ic'^ren  (?),  pren, 
when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  them  in  a  compound  tense : 
3d)  t)abe  i^n  ge^en  l)cif en,  fommen  laffen,  fagen  ^bren.  For  lernen 
and  le^ren,  gelernt  and  gelekt  are  better  usage. 

2.  In  the  preterit-present  verbs  (=  modal  auxiliaries,  see 
134)  which  form  similar  past  participles,  viz.,  fbnnen,  tiirfen, 
mbgen,  mujfen,  foOen,  mUm*  'Man  ^at  ta^  tt)\lu  Zitx  ni^t  fangen 
fbnnen*    See  113. 

3.  In  the  past  participles  of  verbs  having  inseparable  pre- 
fixes, e.  g.,  ijerlajfen,  entfagt,  betedt,  gehi^t,  except  freffen  <  ijer  + 
effen  and  verbs  in  which  h  and  g  are  no  longer  felt  to  be  the 
prefixes  be  and  ge  (see  543),  e.^.,  gefreffen,  geblteben  <  bletben^ 
geglaubt;  gegti^en  <  gleic^en.     See  gegeffen,  128. 

4.  In  verbs  with  the  foreign  ending  -i'eren,  e.  g.,  marf^iereii  — 
marfdjiert  ;  ^robieren  —  |)robiert.  Even  when  these  are  com- 
pounded with  separable  Germanic  prefixes,  they  take  no  ge-  : 
an^marfc^iert,  einftnbicrt. 

5.  ^Borten  <  n>erben  never  takes  ge-,  when  it  is  an  auxihary 
in  the  passive  voice,  e,  g.,  @r  ift  gelobt  njorten. 


Ill] 


CONJUGATION. 


33 


Compound  Tenses. 

109.  These  are  formed  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbs 
l^aben,  fein,  tverten ;  the  last  in  the  future  active  and  the  whole 
passive;  ^akn  and  fein  in  the  active  voice.  As  a  matter  of  con- 
venience the  simple  tenses  of  these  auxiUaries  are  given  here. 

110. 


PRESENT. 


Ind. 

fcu  ^aft 
er  ^at 
tvir  ^akn 

fte  ^aktt 


Suhj. 

laktt 
^a6en 


Imperative. 
2.  sgr.    ^aBe  (^u) 
1.  p/.    l^aben  »ir 
2    JDakt(iW 
( :^akn  (Sie 


PRESENT. 

Ind. 
t(^  tverte 
tu  anrfl 
er  n?irb 
n?ir  merten 
i^r  werbet 
f!e  merben 


werbe 

werbejl 

ttjerbe 

tverbett 

mertet 

ttjerben 


PRETERIT. 

Ind.       Subj. 


^atte 

^attcft 

^atte 

^tten 

^ttet 

fatten 


^atte 

^atteft 

l)atte 

()atten 

^attet 

^^dtten 


PRESENT. 

Ind. 

hin 

tnfl 

ift 
ftnt) 
feib 
ftttD 


PRETERIT. 


Inf. 

Pres.  part., 

gerund. 

patent) 

Past  part. 

PRETERIT. 

Ind. 
ttjarl),  wurbe 
warbft,  itjurbeft 
ttjarb,  njurbe 
wurben 
murtet 
njurben 


fei 

feiefl 

fei 

feien 

feiet 

feien 

Imperative. 
%sg.    fei  (bn) 
1.  pi.    feien  n>ir 

( feien  ©ie 


Ind. 

n?ar 

njarjl 

n?ar 

njaren 

waret 

maren 


Subj. 

IV  are 

Jtjdreft 

ivdre 

mdren 

mdret 

mdren 


Inf. 

fein 

Pres.  part. 
feienb 

Fast  part. 
gcwefen 


njiirbe 

wiirbefl 

tviirbe 

n?itrben 

wiirbet 

wiirben 


Imperative. 
2.  sg.    n>erbe  {liw) 

1.  pi.    merben  mir 

2.  pi.  I^^^^^^M^W 

*  t  wcrben  @ie 

i>i/.  merben 

Pflw^  part,     ujorben 


111.  1.  ^aten  has  contracted  forms  for  the  2.  and  3.  pers.  sing.:  ^afl 
<  hast  <  lialest ;  ^at  <  hat  <  habet.  The  pret.  has  undergone  the  same 
contractions  :  |atte  <  hate  <  habete,  etc.  The  pret.  subj.  has  umlaut  due 
to  the  influence  of  strong  and  pret.-pres.  verbs.    In  dialect  the  old  con- 


34  COiq-TUGATION.  [112- 

tracted  forms  with  d,  prevailing  through  the  whole  present,  are  still 
heard.  In  M.  H.  G.  hciben  as  auxiliary  has  the  contracted  forms  ;  as  an 
independent  verb,  the  uncontracted. 

3.  SBerben  is  a  regular  strong  verb  of  the  3.  class.  It  is  the  only  verb 
that  has  retained  the  two  pret.  vowels,  generally  the  vowel  of  the  sing, 
prevailing  over  that  of  the  plural.  2Barb  is  more  common  as  independent 
verb  ;  JDurbe,  as  auxiliary.    In  elevated  style  roarb  is  preferable. 

112.  The  Perfect  is  formed  with  the  present  of  baben  or  fcin 
and  the  past  participle,  e.  g.,  x6^  ^ak  (jetragen,  I  have  borne;  ic^ 
Mn  Qml)nn,  subj.  id)  fei  gefa^ren,  I  have  ridden.  Perfect  Infini- 
tive: getrageu  ^aBen,  gefa^ren  fein,  to  have  carried,  ridden. 

The  Pluperfect  is  formed  with  the  preterit  of  l)akn  or  fein :  id) 
^atte  gch-agen,  subj.  ic^  ^litte  getragen,  I  had  borne;  ic^  mar  gefal)ren, 
subj.  id)  mare  gefa^ren,  1  had  ridden. 

113.  The  past  participles  without  ge-  accompanied  by  an  infinitive 
(see  108,  1,  2),  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  weak  verbs  which  followed 
their  analogy,  form  such  tenses  as  these  :  3(^  ^abe  t^n  ge'&en  ^eipen,  I  have 
ordered  him  to  leave.  (Sie  '\)abtn  einen  fRod  ntat^en  laffen,  you  have  had  a 
coat  made  or  ordered  a  coat  to  be  made.  !Der  ^nabe  ^at  bie  Seftion  nic^t 
lernen  fonnen,  the  boy  has  not  been  able  to  learn  the  lesson.  6r  ^at  e^  nur 
fagen  |orcn,  he  has  only  heard  it  said.  !Dcr  ^ad)hax  ^at  ben  Settler  ttrreticren 
laffen  tooUtn  (or  vooUtn  arretieren  lafftn),  my  neighbor  wanted  to  have  the 
beggar  arrested. 

114.  The  Future  ind.  and  subj.  is  formed  with  the  present 
of  merten  and  the  infinitive,  e.  g.,  ic^  merbe  tragen,  i(^  merte  fa^ren, 
I  shall  carry,  ride. 

The  Future  Perfect  is  formed  with  the  present  of  mvVcn  and 
the  perfect  infinitive,  e.  g.,  ic^  tverte  getragen  |akn,  ic^  iverte 
gefa^ren  fein,  I  shall  have  carried,  ridden. 

115.  The  first  Conditional  is  formed  with  the  preterit 
subj.  of  njerten  and  the  infinitive,  e.  g.,  i(^  miirte  tragen  or 
fal)ren,  I  should  carry  or  ride. 

The  second  or  perfect  Conditional  is  formed  with  the  pre- 
terit subj.  of  iverten  and  the  perfect  infinitive  :  id)  iviirtc  getragen 
'hcibm  or  gefa^ren  fein,  I  should  have  carried  or  ridden. 


118]  CONJUGATION.  35 


Passive  Voice. 

116.  The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  iverben  except  in  the 
imper.  The  tense  of  the  auxiliary  with  the  past  participle 
of  the  verb  forms  the  corresponding  passive  tense.  SBerten 
forms  its  compound  tenses  with  fein  and  n?erten. 

Present  :  id)  mvlc  gelobt,  I  am  praised,  am  being  praised. 
Preterit  :  i(^  mart)  or  wnvU  getoBt,  I  was  praised. 
Perfect  :  ic^  Bin  geloBt  ivorten,  I  have  been  praised. 
Pluperfect  ;  i(^  war  geloBt  mortiert,  I  had  been  praised. 
Future  :  id)  mxU  geloBt  merl>en,  I  shall  be  praised. 
Future  perfect  :  id)  werte  gelobt  ivoriDen  fein,  I  shall  have  been 
praised. 

1.  Conditional  :  id)  n?iirt)e  gelobt  werbcn,!  should  be  praised. 

2.  or  Conditional  perfect  :    i(%  wiirte  gelobt  njortien   fein,  1 

should  have  been  praised. 
Imperative  :  fei  (tn)  getobt,  be  (thou)  praised. 

feien  ®te  gelobt ) 
Infinitive  :  geloBt  tuerlien,  to  be  praised. 

geloBt  iDOrDen  fein,  to  have  been  praised. 

Weak  Conjugation. 

117.  The  weak  conjugation  forms  the  principal  parts  by 
suffixing  -te  or  -ete  in  the  preterit:  lokn,  lobte,  retten,  rcttete;  by 
prefixing  ge-  and  suffixing  -t  or  -et  in  the  past  participle: 
geloBt,  gerettet*  For  the  simple  tenses  see  103,  for  the  com- 
pound, 112-115. 

1,  Verbs  of  this  conjugation  are  with  few  exceptions  derivative  verbs,  and  most  of 
them  can  be  recognized  as  such  by  certain  marks  of  derivation,  such  as  suffixes  (-etn, 
-em,  -tgcn,  -icren,  -jen,  -fc^cu)  or  umlaut.  (But  there  are  a  few  strong  verbs  with 
umlaut;  Iftgen,  triigen,  gebaren,  etc.). 

118.  1.  The  connecting  vowel  always  stands  before  t,  whether  per- 
sonal suflBx  (3.  p.  sg.  and  2.  p  pi.)  or  in  the  participle  and  preterit,  if  the 
stem  ends  in  b  or  t  (t^);  if  the  stem  ends  in  nt  and  n,  preceded  by  another 


36  CONJUGATION.  [119- 

consonant  whicli  is  not  m  or  n,  e.g.,  cr  rebct,  ibr  ntetbet,  roir  ivalteten,  getrojlet, 
cr  atttiete,  ic^  jeic^nete. 

Those  in  m  and  n  have  lost  an  e  before  these  consonants.  Compare  them  with  their 
nouns  ;  Sltem,  QnA)in.  Those  in  n  are  often  treated  like  those  in  el,  er,  to  which  they 
really  belong  (see  sub  3) :  3ci(^cnte,  vejciite.    But  these  forms  are  not  elegant, 

2.  The  connecting  vowel  stands  in  the  2.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  also  after 
stems  in  f,  fd).  p,  ff,  i,  i^,  besides  the  stem-endings  sub  1,  e.g.,  bu  rebej^> 
njalteft,  [d)mad)tejl,  rec^nefl,  reife|%  fif^eft,  \\>a^i\X  faffefl,  tuibmeft,  kijif,  f^u^efi. 

3.  Verbs  in  -eln  and  -em  rarely  show  the  connecting  vowel  c,  e.  g.,  ic^ 
^anbeltc,  er  l^anbelt,  geladielt,  tuir  Wvinberten.  In  the  1.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  and 
subj.,  in  the  imperative  2.  p.  sg.  they  generally  lose  their  own  e,  e.g.,  i^ 
roanhU,  wanbre,  fc^meid)Ie  (bu). 

4.  In  solemn  diction  and  in  poetry  any  verb  may  retain  the  connecting 
vowel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  poet  and  the  people  take  many  liberties 
in  the  omission  of  it  (sub  1  and  2).  For  instance,  1)a^  neiie  ^au^  ift  aufge- 
ric^t't  (Uh.).  ©eib  mtr  gegrit^t,  "befreunb^tc  (3d)aren !  (Sch.).  0lcb^|lbu  loon  eincm 
ber  ha  le&et?  (id.).  ®egru§et  feib  mir,  eble  ^errn !  (?5egriipt  i^r,  fc^one  2)amen 
(G.).  See  F.  3216,  3557.  In  fact  though  such  full  forms  as  bu  ftfd)eff, 
rafejl,  faffejl*  ^u^efl,  etc.,  are  written,  one  generally  hears  bu  ftfd)t,  xa^,  fa^t, 
Jju^t,  etc.     This  applies  also  to  strong  verbs,  e.  g.,  bu  tt)afd)t,  flopt,  rei§t. 

5.  The  present  subj.  nearly  always  shows  full  forms,  but  the  preterit 
ind,  and  subj.  have  coincided  :  ba§  bu  liekjl,  i^r  liebet;  bap  ic^  Iie(>te,  rcbete. 

Irregular   Weak  Verbs. 

119.  There  are  two  groups  of  these  verbs.  One  has  a  dif- 
ference of  vowel  which  looks  like  ablaut,  the  other  has  besides 
different  vowels  also  a  change  in  consonants. 

1.  The  stems  show  nn  or  nb: 


Inf. 

Pret.  ind. 

Subj. 

Past  participle. 

brennen 

brannte 

brennte 

gebrannt 

fenben 

fanbte 

fenbete 

gefanbt 

Here  belong  brentten,  +  burn  ;  fennen,  to  be  acquainted 
with,  +  ken;  nenncn,  +  name;  renncn,  4-  run;  fcnben,  +  send; 
menben,  to  turn,  +  wend,  went.  The  last  two  have  also  a  pre- 
terit ind.  fenbete,  wenbete. 


121]  CONJUGATION^.  37 

2.  The  stems  show  nf,  ng.     Here  belong : 


Inf. 

Pret.  ind. 

Subj. 

Past  participle. 

tenfen 

tadjte 

tac^te 

getad)t 

biinfen 

( teuc^te  (nciud^te) 
}  t)Mit 

tcud^te 

geljeuc^t 

tiiinftc 

getiinft 

bringen 

bradjte 

hxa&)k 

gebrac^t 

Strong   Conjugation. 

120.  Strong  verbs  must  have  different  stem- vowels  in  the 
preterit  and  present,  since  in  this  way  difference  of  tense  is 
expressed.  But  the  vowel  of  the  past  participle  may  coincide 
with  that  of  the  present,  as  in  gekn,  gab,  gegeben  v,  fa^ren,  fu^r, 
gefa^ren  vi,  l)alten,  l)ielt,  ge^alten  vii;  or  with  that  of  the  preterit, 
as  in  bei§en,  U%  gebiffeit  i,  Inegen,  bog,  gebogen  n,  glimmcn,  gloinm, 
geglommen  vm.  The  past  participle  ends  in  -en,  and  has  the 
prefix  ge-  e.  gr.,  geftoMen,  gerufen.    For  simple  tenses  see  103. 

121.  The  personal  suffixes  are  the  same  as  in  weak  verbs. 
Compare  Hebte,  tiebteft,  (iebte,  etc.;  fa^,  fa^ft,  fa^,  etc.  The  imper- 
ative 2.  p.  sg.  has  no  ending  when  the  present  ind.  has  inter- 
change of  e-i,  ie,  e.  g.,  i(^  bergc,  tu  birgft,  er  birgt;  imp.  birg ;  bred)en 
— bricb;  effen — i§.  This  interchange  of  c-i,  ie  occurs  in  in  3, 
IV,  v;  in  verbs  which  do  not  have  it  there  is  no  difference  of 
stem- vowel  in  the  imperative  and  the  present,  e.  g.,  l)alten — 
^att ;  [(^njimmen  —  fc^mimm.  But  often  e  is  added  in  analogy 
with  weak  verbs,  always  when  the  verb  is  either  strong  or 
weak,  e.  g.,  rufen  —  rufe  vii ;  fdjlagen  —  fc^lage  vi ;  always  n?ebe, 
bewege,  crwage  vni.  In  the  last  group  there  is  of  course  no 
interchange  of  e-i,  e,  g.,  tu  bewegft,  er  bemegt.  When  the  stem 
ends  in  t,  -tet  in  the  3.  p.  sg.  is  contracted  to  single  t,  if  the 
stem-vowel  changes.  M.  H.  G.  giltet  >  giUH  >  gilt.  K  g., 
gelten  — er  gilt;  fed^ten— er  fid^t;  raten,  rat;  but  reitet,  fd)neiM. 
Special  mention  is  made  of  these  peculiarities  under  each 
class  and  verb.     The  preterit  subj.  always  has  umlaut  and 


38  CONJUGATIOIS^.  [122- 

tlie  1.  and  3.  p.  sg.  end  in  e,  e.  ^.,  id)  fal),  t)U  fa^ft,  er  fat),  etc. ; 
but  id)  fdk,  tu  |*dl)eft,  er  fdt)e. 

The  verbs  are  best  classified  according  to  the  ablaut- series. 
(See  393.) 

122.    I.  Class.     Ablaut :    ei  i,  ic  i,  ie. 

1.  Division  :    ei  i  i* 
The  stem  ends  in  ^  (ff),  f,  (^,  t,  t)-t. 

Examples:  ki^en,  H§,  geBiffen ;  fd)letfett,  f(!^(iff,  gefd)ttffen ;  fd)reiten, 
fdjritt,  gefd^ritten;  n)eid)en,  tt)i(^,  gewi^en;  leiten,  Hit,  gelittcn. 

The  following  verbs  belong  here  :  ki^en,  +  bite  ;  Meid)en  (intrans.),  + 
bleach,  but  also  weak,  always  when  trans.;  \i6)  befleipen,  to  apply  one's 
self;  Qid6)tn,  to  be  +  like,  strong  since  the  17th  century,  in  the  sense  of 
+  liken  it  is  still  weak,  a  N.  H.  G.  distinction,  M.  H.  G.  only  weak ; 
9lei§en,  +  glitter,  nothing  to  do  with  the  rare  gleifen  <  gelihsen,  to 
deceive,  or  entgleifen,  to  run  off  the  track  <  ®eleife,  track ;  gleiterif  +  glide  ; 
greifen,  to  seize,  +  gripe  ;  gretnen,  +  grin,  rare  and  generally  weak,  grinfeitf 
its  derivative,  has  taken  its  place ;  feifett;  to  quarrel,  is  strong  or  weak,  < 
L.  G, ;  fneifeit,  to  pinch,  L.  G.  >  N.  H.  G. ;  fretfd)en  and  frei^enf  to  scream, 
are  related,  both  weak  and  strong,  not  H.  G. ;  leibeit;  to  suffer,  +  loathe  ; 
pfeifen^  to  whistle,  +  pipe  <  L,  pipare  ;  rei§en>  to  tear,  +  write,  draw ; 
reitertf  +  ride  on  horseback;  fc^Iei^en,  to  sneak  {+  slick  and  sleek); 
fc^Ietfen,  to  grind,  +  slip,  weak  in  the  sense  of  "  to  drag,  raze"  ;  fd)lei^en, 
+  slit,  split ;  fc^meipen,  +  smite,  throw  ;  fc^neiben,  to  cut ;  fd)reitcn,  to  stride ; 
fpleipen,  +  split,  L.  and  M.  G. ;  ftreic^ertf  to  wipe,  cross,  +  strike,  etc.,  with 
very  varying  meanings ;  jlreiten>  to  strive  ;  tt>ei(^en,  to  yield ;  compare 
mid),  +  weak,  wicker  ;  weak,  it  means  to  soak,  soften. 

2.  Division  :    ei  ie  it. 

Examples :  getei^en,  geDie^,  gebie^en ;  reiben,  rieB,  gerieben. 

Here  belong :  Meiben,  to  remain  ( +  leave) ;  gebei^en,  to  thrive,  the  part, 
has  a  doublet,  gebte^eitf  thriven,  gebiegen,  solid,  pure ;  Iei|)en,  to  borrow,  + 
lend  ;  metbeit,  to  avoid  ;  Vteifen,  +  to  praise,  strong  only  since  the  15th  cen- 
tury, <  ^xti^  <  M.  H.  G.  pris  <  O.  Pr.  pris  <  L.  pr^tium,  analogous  to 
Fr.  priser  ;  xdhtn,  to  rub  (  +  rive) ;  fd)etben,  to  separate  ;  fc^einen,  +  shine; 
fc^reibenf  to  write  ( +  shrive) ;  fc()retenf  to  scream  (?) ;  fc^weigen,  to  be  silent, 
weak  in  the  sense  of  "to  still  a  child";  fpcten,  to  spit,  +  spew;  jletgenr 
to  climb;  treibenf  +  to  drive;  miftn,  to  point  out,  in  the  16th  century 
still  weak  ;  jei^en^  to  accuse  (  +  indict). 


125]  CON-JUGATIOIT.  39 

123.  Notice  the  interchange  of  b-t  in  the  first  division,  e.g.^  fc^netbcn,  ^c^nttt, 
ge^ct^nitteu  ;  but  not  in  the  second,  viz.,  mciben,  mieb,  gemieben  ;  jdjeiben,  jctjieb,  gci^ieben. 
(See  416.)  When  the  stem  ends  in  ^  or  j,  the  2.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  is  heard  merely  as 
ending  in  ft,  whether  spelt  so  or  not.  The  full  form  -eft  stands  only  in  elevated  diction, 
e.g.,  bu  fc^mci^t,  bei^t,  beflci^t  bic^  ;  bu  roeifeft  and  wetft,  bu  ^reiKft  and  preift.  (See  118, 
4.)  Notice  also  the  doubling  of  t  and  f  in  fd^reiten,  f^ritt ;  ftveiten,  flritt;  f^teifcn,  fc^Iiff* 
etc. 

124.  II.  Class.    Ablaut :    ie  (ii,  au)  o,  o  o,  o, 

1.  Division  :    ie  (au)  o         "   o* 
The  stem  ends  in  f  (jj),  c^,  f,  b-t. 

Examples  :  fticgen,  flog,  gefloffen ;  triefen,  troff,  getrojfen. 

Here  belong :  verbriepen,  to  disgust,  vex ;  flieiettf  +  flow  ( +  fleet) ; 
giepen,  to  pour ;  friec^eti,  +  to  crouch,  creep  (?) ;  geniepen,  to  enjoy  ;  riec^en, 
to  smell,  +  reek  ;  fc^icpen,  +  to  shoot  ;  fc^Iiefen,  to  slip,  rare,  supplanted 
by  its  derivative  [d^Iii^^fcn;  fc()lie§en,  to  close,  lock;  fprie^en,  +  to  sprout; 
triefen,  +  to  drip  ;  faufen,  to  drink  (of  animals);  fteben,  see  index. 

2.  Division  :    ie,  it,  au  o  o. 

Examples  :  fliegen,  flog,  geflogen ;  triigen,  trog,  getrogen ;  faugen, 
fog,  gefogeu. 

Here  belong :  1.  In  ie :  Megen,  to  bend ;  Meten,  to  offer,  +  to  bid ; 
fliegen,  +  to  fly  ;  flie^en,  +  to  flee ;  frieren,  +  to  freeze  ;  Hie  ben,  +  to 
cleave,  split ;  fc^iekn,  +  to  shove  ;  jliekn,  to  scatter  ;  ^erlieren,  +  to  lose; 
jie^en  (jog,  gejogen)),  to  draw. 

2.  In  ii ;  furen  (fiefen),  +  to  choose ;  lugen,  +  lie  ;  triigen,  to  deceive. 

3.  In  au  :  faugen,  +  to  suck  ;  fc^naukn  (fc^nieten),  to  snort,  L.  and  M.  G.; 
f(feraukn,  to  screw  (+  ?),  L.  G.  >  late  M.  H.  G. 

2.,  3.  pers.  sg.  pres.  show  archaic  forms  sometimes  in  eu  :  fleu^t,  freuc^t,  fleugt.  (See 
406.)  Of  those  in  au  only  faufen  has  umlaut,  viz.,  fSiuffl,  fiuft.  The  stem  ending  in  ^, 
the  2.  p.  sg.  may  be  bu  f^le^t,  genie^t.  Notice  the  interchange  of  :^-g  in  jiel^en,  jog, 
gejogen,  but  ^  is  silent.  (See  416.)  Notice  also  the  doubling  of  t :  faufen,  foff,  etc. 

125.  m.  Class.    Ablaut  :    e,  i  a  it,  o» 
1.  Division  :    i            a            it. 

The  stem  ends  in  n  -f  cons.  (l>,  g,  !)♦ 

Examples  :  bittfcen,  banb,  gebun^en;  fpringeit,  fprang,  gefprungen* 


40  CONJUGATION.  [127- 

Here  belong  :  binben,  +  to  bind  ;  bingen,  to  hire,  originally  and  still  at 
times  weak,  the  isolated  weak  past  part,  bebtngt  is  a  regular  adjective  ; 
bringen,  to  penetrate ;  ftnbeitf  +  to  find  ;  gcUngen,  to  be  successful  ;  flingen; 
to  be  heard,  resound ;  ringen,  to  struggle,  +  wring ;  fc^inbcn,  +  to  skin, 
pret.  fd)unb ;  [(^Ungctt;  to  twine,  +  sling,  it  also  has  the  force  of  the  now 
lost  fd)Unben,  to  swallow ;  fc^winben,  to  disappear ;  [(^tvingen,  +  to  swing  , 
fingen,  +  to  sing ;  finfen,  +  to  sink ;  fpringen,  +  to  spring ;  ftinfcn,  +  to 
stink ;  trinfen,  +  to  drink  ;  tt»inben,  +  to  wind  ;  jwingen,  to  force. 

2.  Division  :    t  a  6. 

The  stem  ends  in  mm  and  nn. 

Examples  :  fpinnen,  frann,  subj.  fpcinne  and  fpbnne,  gefponnen; 
fdjnjimmcn,  fdjmamm,  fc^wdmme  and  fc^momme,  gef^tvommen. 

Here  belong:  bcginnen,  +  to  begin;  rinnen,  to  flow,  +  run;  jinnen,  to 
think ;  fc^wlmmen,  +  to  swim ;  fpinnen,  -f  to  spin ;  gcwinnen,  +  to  win. 

3.  Division  :    e-i  a  o. 

The  stem  ends  in  I,  r  +  cons,  except  trefc^en. 
Examples  :  :|elfert   (Mlft),  ^alf  (^iilfe,  I)a(fe),  ge^^olfen  ;    merfen 
(wirft),  warf  (miirfe),  geworfen. 

Here  belong:  bcrgen,  to  hide,  +  bury,  burrow;  Berjlen,  +  to  burst; 
brefd^en,  +  to  thrash  ;  gelten^  to  be  worth,  pass  for ;  :^elfen>  +  to  help ;  fc^elten, 
+  to  scold ;  jlerben,  to  die  (+  starve) ;  tterberben,  to  spoil  (intrans.) ;  ^tx- 
bcrbcn  (weak),  to  corrupt ;  wcrben,  to  enlist,  woo ;  tr>erben,  to  become,  + 
worth  (see  110) ;  werfen,  to  throw  ( +  warp). 

126.  Notice  the  double  preterits  subj.  (See  464,  3.)  Sub  2,  rinnen  never  has 
„ranne."  The  3.  division  has  generally  and  better  ii,  because  you  cannot  tell  „t;alfe" 
from  „^elfc"  by  ear.  CDreJci^en  and  berften,  once  belonging  to  the  next  class,  have 
br6id>c  —  bva^(i^e,  barfte  —  66rjle. 

The  2.  and  3.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  have  I  instead  of  c.  (See  403.)  As  to  the  suffix, 
Berj'ten  has  bu  birft,  tiirfteft,  cr  6ivft;  getten,  bu  giltft  (pronounced  gtlft),  er  gilt;  aerben,  bu 
iBirft,  er  rcirb;  fdjelten  like  gelten. 

127.  IV.  Class.     Ablaut :   a,e,e  —  i,  ie  a  o,  o. 
The  stem  contains  I,  r,  m  after  or  before  the  root-vowel. 
Examples:    6re6cn    (brid)ft),  Brac^    (brac^e),  gebroi^en;    fte()Ien 

(ftic^lft),  ftal)l  (ftd^Ie,  ftot)le),  gcftoMen, 


129]  CON^JUGATION'.  41 

Here  belong  :  Brec^en,  +  to  break ;  geBaren.  +  to  bear,  bring  forth ; 
befe^len,  to  command  ;  entjjfe^len,  to  recommend  ;  erfc^rccfcn  (erfc^raf),  to  be 
frightened;  ne^men,  to  take,  +  nim  ;  fprec()en,  to  speak;  jle(i)cm  +  to  stick, 
stab  ;  fte^Ien,  +  to  steal ;  treffen  (traf ),  to  bit ;  fommen,  fmi,  gefommeu,  +  to 
come.     (See  489,  1.) 

iBefe^lcn  and  empfe^len  belonged  to  the  III.  Class,  and  have  double  subjunctives, 
Befo^te— fccfa^Ie,  etc.  So  has  [k^ten,  fto^te  — fta^te.  The  umlaut  in  gcfiaven  is  only 
graphic  for  e  <  e.  Those  in  -^t  and  geSdven  have  ie  in  2.  and  3.  p.  sg.  present  ind. : 
empfieI;U,  gebievt.  The  rest  have  i :  triffft,  fpvi^fl ;  t»u  fommft,  ev  f oiumt  are  quite  common, 
but  not  elegant. 

1^8.    V.  Class.    Ablaut:   i,  ^,e  —  i,ie  a  e,e. 

The  stem  ends  in  any  sound  but  a  liquid. 

1.  Division :   e,e  —  i,  ie  a  ?,  ?♦ 
Example  :  gekn  (giebft,  gibft),  gab  (gabe),  gegeBen. 

Here  belong :  (f(m,  +  eat ;  freffen,  +  eat  (said  of  animals) ;  gekn,  + 
give  ;  genefen,  to  recover ;  gefc^elicn/  to  happen  ;  lefert;  to  read  ;  nteffen,  +  to 
measure,  +  mete  ;  fc^en,  +  to  see ;  treteit,  +  to  tread ;  vergeffen,  +  to  for- 
get ;  (wefen)  war,  getDcfen,  to  be,  +  was. 

2.  Division  :    i,  ie  a  e,  e» 

Here  belong:  bitten,  bat,  gekten,  to  ask,  +  bid;  liegen,  (ag,  gelcgen,  +  to 
lie  ;  ft|en,  fa§,  gefeffen,  +  to  sit. 

The  form  of  the  2.  and  3.  persons  sg.  of  the  present  ind.  of  verbs  ending  in  ff  is  -^t; 
of  those  in  f  is  ft  for  both  persons  :  bu,  cr  i^t,  wergi^t,  frt^t ;  bu,  cr  lieft.  But  genefcn,  fcu, 
er  geneft,  has  no  ie,  probably  because  genieft  would  have  coincided  with  genie^t  <  genie^en, 
geno^,  ii. ;  bu  fi^eft  may  be  contracted  >  [igft,  pronounced  merely  „fi5t."  The  participle 
of  effen,  viz.,  gegeffen,  has  gc-  twice,  because  geeffen  was  contracted  into  gcffcn  very  early. 
This  is  now  colloquial.    (See  F.  2838, 4415.)    Notice  bu  trittft,  ev  tvitt ;  bu  tittcft,  cr  tittct. 

129.    VI.  Class.     Ablaut :    a,  a-a  u  a,  a. 

The  stem-vowel  is  short  before  more  than  one   consonant. 


Example:  ba(fen,(bacfp),bu!(6u!e),  gekte. 

Here  belong  :  bad  en,  +  to  bake,  in  N.  G.  generally  weak ;  fal^ren,  to  ride, 
+  fare  ;  graben,  to  dig;  laben,  to  invite,  and  laben,  +  load  ;  laben  (strong). 


12  CONJUGATION.  [130- 

+  to  load,  and  laben  (weak),  to  invite,  have  been  confounded  since  early 
N,  H.  G.;  they  are  of  different  origin  ;  [c^affeu  (fd)uf),  to  create  (weak,  "to 
work  ") ;  fd)Ia9en,  to  strike,  +  slay  ;  tragen,  to  carry  ;  wac^fen,  to  grow,  + 
wax  ;  wafc^en,  +  to  wash ;  (jlei^en),  jlunb,  flanb  (jlitnbe,  f^anbe),  geilanben,  +  to 
stand,  ftunb  is  still  common  in  S.  G. 

Here  belonged  also  formerly  :  ^c^en  (^eBfl),  ^u^,  gc^okn,  to  raise,  + 
heave;  fc^wbren  (ft^tt)5r|l),  f(|n)ur— fc^wor,  9ef(|rooren,  +  to  swear.  %xaQtn 
(fragfl),  frug  (but  never  gcfragen)*  "  to  ask,"  are  frequently  heard  ;  also  jagen 
(jagjl),  iug^  "to  chase."  The  forms  are  still  frowned  upon  by  gram- 
marians because  they  are  "wrong,"  but  the  people  use  them  just  the 
same. 

In  the  2.  and  3.  p.  present  ind.  a  is  the  rule  excepting  jc^offen,  fct>afffl,  which  is  under 
the  influence  of  the  wealj  verb.  Notice  bu  and  er  wadj^t,  bu  reafc^fl  (pronounced  wajc^t). 
Isolated  participles :  gemal)Ien,  ground  ;  ma^Ieu  is  now  weak,  mal)len,  ma^Ue,  gema^lt, 
to  grind  ;  cvl;aljen,  lofty,  <  er^efcen,  erl^oben. 

130.  VII.  Class.  Characteristic  is  te  in  the  preterit, 
which  is  no  ablaut,  while  the  past  participle  always  has  the 
vowel  of  the  infinitive. 

For  convenience  we  make  two  groups. 
1.  Division.    The  seeming  ablaut  is  :  5,  a  ic  a,  a. 

a  before  more  than  one  consonant,  ic  =  short  i  before  -tig. 
Examples:  f<ingen  (fangft),  fteng,  gefangen;  braten  (bratft,  Mt), 
kiet,  gekaten. 

Here  belong:  Hafett,  -f  blow,  +  blare  (?);  braten,  to  roast,  fry;  fatten 
(fitl),  +  to  fall ;  fangen  (rarer  fafjen),,  to  catch  ;  (ge^en),  gieng,  gegangen,  +  go, 
went,  gone  ;  ^alten,  +  to  hold  ;  t)angcn,  +  to  hang ;  laffcn,  +  to  let,  cause  ; 
raten/  to  advise ;  fc^lafen,  +  to  sleep. 

Umlaut  is  the  rule  in  the  2.  and  3.  p.  present  ind.  Notice  bu  xhi'\t,  cr  rat ;  bu,  cr  blaft ; 
t«  ^altft  (pronounced  „^cilft"),  er  ^ilt ;  bu  liffcft  or  bu,  cr  lajjt.  The  umlaut  in  this  whole 
class  is  late  ;  in  later  M.  H.  G.  they  have  it  rarely.  The  "  Rules  "  prefer  the  spelling 
i  to  ie,  viz.,  l^tng,  fing,  ging. 

131.  2.  Division  :    au,  ci,  o,  u  te  ait,  ei,  o,  u. 

Here  belong  :  |auen,  l^ict)  (b  <  Jt>),  ge^aucn,  +  to  hew  ;  laufeit,  lief,  gelaufcn, 
to  run,  +  leap  ;  ^ei^en,  ^ic§,  gel^etpen,  to  call,  command,  +  hight  j  jlopen 
(jliep),  to  kick,  thrust ;  rufcn  (rief),  to  call. 


133]  CONJUGATION.  •     43 

Only  flo|en  and  generally  laufcn  take  the  umlaut:  in,  ev  flo^t;  bu  I&ufjl. 

©tfjeiben,  once  of  this  class,  has  gone  into  i ;  „ge:^ie|ett,"  according  to  i,  is  some- 
times heard,  but  must  still  be  rejected  as  incorrect.  Of  this  class  there  are  a  great 
many  isolated  participles  of  verbs  that  have  changed  conjugation,  e.  g.,  bcfc^cibcn, 
modest  (but  IJef^ieben,"  ordered  ") ;  ge^c^roten,  rough-ground  ;  gefaijen,+ salt ;  gefpatten, 
"  split " ;  gercaljen,  rolled,  etc.    9iufen,  ruftc,  geruft  is  not  correct. 

132.  VIII.  Class.  Characteristic  is  o  in  the  preterit  and 
past  participle,  long  or  short  according  to  the  following  con- 
sonants. 

The  verbs  belonging  here  are  stragglers  from  all  the  other  ablaut - 
series.  There  must  be  therefore  a  number  that  are  still  afloat ;  that  is, 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  period  in  which  they  are  taken,  they  be- 
long to  their  regular  class  or  to  this.  Present  usage  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage always  favors  o  —  o,  e.g.,  fc^tt)orcn,  fc^wor,  gefc^woren,  vi ;  brefc^eiu 
brcfc^,  gebrofc^en*  iii ;  f^tUn,  ^oh,  ge^o'ben,  vi,  which  have  been  assigned  by  us, 
however,  to  their  proper  classes.  Citgen,  ii,  and  triigett,  ii,  have  sprung 
from  Uegen  and  triegen  under  the  influence  of  the  nouns  Siige,  2rug.  They 
might  be  classed  here;  as  also  furen,  ii,  for  fiefen  ;  compare  the  noun 
itur(*furjl),  elector. 

133.  The  vowels  of  the  present  may  be  e,  i,  a,  a,  b* 
The  ablaut  is  most  frequently  e  o  o» 

We  count  here :  fceHen  (bettt,  Mt),  to  bark,  iii ;  fe(^ten  (ftc^t|l,  ftd)t),  +  to 
fight,  IV,  III;  flec^ten  (flic^tfl,  pronounced  f[tct)jl,  fli(^t),  to  braid,  iv,  iii; 
J)flc9en>  to  carry  on,  undertake,  v,  iv,  in  the  sense  of  "  to  be  accustomed/' 
"  to  care  for,"  always  weak  ;  melfen  (meUt  and  milft),  +  to  milk  iii ;  queUcn 
(quiUt),  to  swell,  gush.  Ill ;  fd^eHen  (f^ittt  archaic),  generally  f(|atten  the  weak 
verb,  "  to  resound,"  weak  =  to  cause  to  resound,  ring,  iii ;  fd^meljen 
(fc^mtljfl,  fc^mitjt),  +  to  melt,  in ;  \^mUtn  (f(|wittt),  -f  to  swell,  in ;  mUn 
(rotb^i),  strong  and  weak,  -i-  to  weave,  v;  bettjcgen  (bewcgfl),  to  induce, 
weak  =  to  move,  v ;  glimmen,  to  glow,  in,  2  ;  fUmmen»  +  to  climb,  in,  2 ; 
garen  (gcirt),  to  ferment,  also  weak,  iv ;  erwagcn  (erwagjl),  to  consider;  iragen 
or  wiegen  (if  ie,  n),  wagft,  »legj!,  +  to  weigh  (-tt>agen»  wtcgen,  -wegen  are  in 
M.  H.  G.  the  same  word,  v) ;  rcic^en  (rad^t),  +  to  wreak,  sometimes  has  ro*, 
geroc^en,  but  is  generally  weak,  iv;  erlof^cn,  intrans.,  to  die  out  (of  a  flame), 
(erlifc^ejl,  erlifc^^t),  but  trans.  lofc^en,  to  extinguish,  in ;  verwirren,  to  confuse, 
in,  is  generally  weak,  but  has  an  isolated  participle,  »erWorrctt  =  intricate, 
complicated ;  fc^eren  (fc^ierjl,  fc^iert)  +  shear,  iv,  is  sometimes  weak. 


44  ANOMALOUS  VERBS.  [134- 

ANOMALOUS   VERBS. 

1.  The  Preterit-Present  Verbs. 

134.  To  this  group  belong  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  miffen* 
They  are  originally  strong  verbs,  whose  preterits  are  used  as 
presents.  New  preterits,  past  participles,  and  infinitives  were 
formed  weak.  The  infinitives,  the  present  plural,  and  the  new 
strong  participle  have  the  same  vowel,  sometimes  with  an 
irregular  umlaut :  !5ttnen  (inf.),  Wiv  tbnnen,  lonnen  (past  part.). 
The  different  vowels'  of  the  present  in  the  sg.  and  pi.  iveig, 
jviffen;  the  subjunct.,  with  umlaut,  ntag,  moge;  the  lack  of  t  in 
the  3,  p.  sg.,  er  mag,  are  still  traces  of  their  strong  conjugation. 
The  weak  preterit  was  formed  without  connecting  vowel,  and 
has  umlaut  in  the  subjunctive  :  mbgen,  mo(^te,  mbd)te,  gemoc^t* 
(See  119,  2,  and  454,  3.)  The  strong  participle  in  -en  stands 
in  the  compound  tenses,  when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  the 
auxiUary:  id)  Hh^  fd)reiben  miiffen,  but  ic^  l)abe  gemu§t.  An  im- 
perative, the  meaning  permitting,  is  made  up  from  the 
subjunctive,  e.g.,  tooUt,  miJcje. 

135.  1.  Siffen,  i,  to  know,  +  to  wit  (wot,  he  wist). 

Inf.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Participles. 

ttiffen  ttugtc  wujte  jj'*"^* 

The  pres.  ind.  inflects:  tc^  wet§,  tu  tt>ei§t,  er  mi^,  tvir  tviffen,  it)r 
miff(e)t,  fie  miffen.  Subj. :  ic^  juiffe,  njiffeft,  tviffe,  etc.  Imp. :  wiffe, 
miffft,  tviffen  @ie. 

2.  !Durfen,  in,  to  be  permitted. 

Laf.  Pres.  sg.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Past  part. 

biirfen  tarf  burfte  biirfte  ■!  ^..  . 

Pres.  ind. :  barf,  barfjl,  barf,  biirfen,  biirft,  biirfen*  Subj. :  biirff, 
biirfeft,  biirfe,  etc. 


136]  ANOMALOUS  VEEBS.  45 

3.  i^onnen,  in,  to  be  able,  +  can. 

Inf.  Pres.  eg.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Past  part. 

fijnnen  tann  fonnte  fonnte  ]  2, 

( ronnen 

Pres.  ind, :  tann,  fannft,  Unn,  fbniten,  etc.    Subj. :  fbnne,  fbnneft, 
*5)nne,  etc.     Imp. :  !bnne,  fbnnt,  lonnen  <Ste. 

4.  9)cogcn,  v,  iv,  to  be  able,  +  may. 

Inf.  Pres.  sg.  Pret,  ind.  Subj.  Past  part. 

m^m  mag  moc^te  mb(|te  ]  ^  „ 

Just  like  fbnnen. 

5.  ©oKen,  iv,  +  shall. 

Inf,  Pres.  sg.  Pret.  ind.  and  subj.  Past  part. 

fotlen  foil  foUte  ^  ^^^"^^^^ 


I  foKen 


Pres.  ind.:  foil,  foHft,  foil,  follen,  etc. 


Tills  is  almost  entirely  weak  now.     The  vowel-difference  in  the  pres. 
liv^  been  levelled  away.     Comp.  Eng.  shall,  should. 

<je??;  VI,  +  must. 


Iiif.  Pres.  sg.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Past  part. 

muJTcn  mn^  mufte  mu§te  |  ^^^.^^^ 

Pres.  ind.  ,  mug,  mu§t,  mu§.     Subj. :  mitffe,  etc. 
This  too  is  ilmost  entirely  weak. 

7.  2Bollen,  i,  +  will. 

Inf.  Pres.  sg.  Subj.  Ind.  and  subj.  Pret.  Past  part. 

njoaen         will  tvoUe  mollte  j  geivoUt 

(  mUm 

Pres.  ind. :  juill,  ivillft,  tt?ia,  m\i^n,  woiii,  tooUcw,     (See  472,  2.) 

n.    The  verbs   g  c  I)  n,  +  to  go,  ft  e  I)  n,  +  to    stand,  t  ^  u  n, 
4-  to  do. 


46  ANOMALOUS  VERBS. 


[137 


136.  1.  ®eKO«* 

Pres.  ind. ;  id)  ge^e,  In  ge^fl,  er  ge^t,  toix  ge^n,  %  ge^t,  jte  ge^n. 
Subj.:  ic^  gc:^e,  t)U  ge^eft,  er  get)e,  etc. 
Imp.  sg.:  get);  pi.,  ge:^t,  gel)en  8ie.     Part:  ge^ent)* 
Pret.  ind.:  t(^  gieng.     Subj.:  id)  gienge. 
Pari:  gegangen.     According  to  vii ;  from  a  stem  '* gang." 

2.  (Ste^(e)n. 

Pres.  ind. :  id)  fte^e,  tu  fle^ft,  er  jte^t,  tt)ir  (le^n,  i^r  fte^t;  fte  jie^n* 
Subj. :  id)  fte^e,  tu  fte^eft,  er  fte^e,  etc. 
Imp.  sg.:  fte^;  pi.,  fte|t,  fte^en  ©ie.    Part.:  pe^^enb. 
Pret.  ind.:  i(^  fianD  (ftunt).     Subj.:  ftiinbe  (ftiinbe). 
Part.:  geftant>en.     According  to  ti  ;   from  a  stem  '^ stand  " 

3.  Z^nn. 

Pres.  ind. :  id)  tl)uc,  t)U  tl)ufi,  er  tl)ut,  mir  t()un,  i()r  t()ut,  fte  tt)iitt. 
Subj. :  id)  tt)ue,  bu  ti)ueft,  er  iijm,  tvir  t()im,  i(}r  t()ut,  fie  tt)uen. 

Imp.  sg.:  t^u;  pi.,  t^ut,  t^un  ©ie.     Part.:  t^uent). 

Pret.  ind. :  id^  t^at,  tu  t^mtft,  er  t^at,  tt)ir  t|aten,  il)r  tljatet,  fie 
t^aten.     Subj.:  i^  t^dte,  tu  t^ateft,  er  ti^'dtt,  etc. 

Part.:  getl)att. 

The  full  forms  with  c  of  these  three  verbs  are  not  used  in  the  indica- 
tive. The  ^  is  merely  graphic,  and  is  not  pronounced,  e.  g.,  i(^  geoc  is  not 
gc-l^e,  but  gc  or  gc'c. 

137.  The  compound  verbs  are  not  inflected  differently  from 
the  simple  verbs.  Notice  the  position  of  the  separable  prefix, 
and  ge-  in  separable  compound  verbs:  ic^  fd)reibe  an,  fi^ri^b  an; 
imp.  fd)reibe  (tu)  an,  ic^  ^be  angefc^rieben,  id)  werbe  anfc^rei&en. 
The  separable  prefix  stands  apart  from  the  verb  in  the  simple 
tenses  (pres.  and  pret.),  but  only  in  main  clauses;  ge-,  ju-  stand 
between  prefix  and  verb,  angefd)riekn,  anjufc^reiben.  Ex.:  3(^ 
fd)reibe,  fd)riet  ten  33rief  ab,  but  tt?a^rent>  id)  ten  ^rief  abfc^rieb 
(dependent  clause).      In  inseparable  compounds  notice  the 


138]  ANOMALOUS  VERBS.  47 

participle  has  no  ge  t  id)  ijerfte^,  »erjlant,  ^aBe  ijerftanben,  mxU 
m\td)n.     (See  108,  3.) 

1.  Notice  a  class  of  inseparable  compounds  derived  from  compound 
nouns.  These  have  ge.  They  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  chief 
stress  falling  on  the  first  element:  ha^  ^ru'^flitrf,  verb  frii'^pden,  frit^ftucfte, 
gefru^fliicft,  to  breakfast;  ber  9fta' tfc^lag,  verb  ra'tfci^lagen, ratfc^lagte,  geratfc^lagt, 
to  take  council. 

138.     Additional  examples  of  verb  inflections. 

1 .  Strong  presents  with  the  second  persons  sing,  and  pi.  of 
the  imperative. 

a.  ftreitett,  strive,  1. ;  id)  ftreite,  bu  flreitefl,  er  flrettet,  tvir  flreiten, 
i^r  jireitet,  fie  ftreiten ;  ftreite,  ftreitet. 

b.  Bitten,  ask,  V. ;  i(^  bitte,  bit  Mtteft,  er  bittet,  n?ir  bitten,  it)r 
Mttet,  fie  Bitten  ;  Bitte,  Bittet. 

c.  tragen,  carrjs  VI. ;  i(^  tra^^e,  bu  tragft,  er  tragt,  tt)tr  tragen, 
i()r  traget,  fie  trngen ;  trage,  traget. 

d.  raten,  advise,  VII. ;  ic^  rate,  bu  ratft,  er  rtit,  wir  raten,  i^r 
ratet,  fte  raten ;  rate,  ratet, 

2.  Reflexive  verb :  ftc^  fe()nen,  to  long. 

a.  Present :  id)  fel)ne  mid),  bu  fe()nj^  bi^,  er  fe^nt  ftd^,  wix  fe^nen 
uni?,  i()r  fe^nt  eu(^,  fie  fe()nen  ftd). 

b.  Perfect :  icfe  ()aBe  mic^  gefe^nt,  bu  ^a|l  bic^  gefeljnt,  cr  ()at  ftc^ 
gefet)nt,  wiv  ^aBen  uns  gefe()nt,  i()r  ^aBt  eu(^  9efel)nt,  fte  ^aBen  ftc^ 
gefe()nt. 

3.  Separable  compound  and  reflexive  verb :  fti^  anmelben, 
announce  one's  self. 

a.  Present :  i(^  melbe  mic^  an,  bu  melbejl  bic^  an,  er  melbet  fic^ 
an,  wir  melben  un^  an,  i^r  melbet  eu(^  an,  fte  melben  fic^  an. 

b.  Perfect:  ic^  ^aBe  mid^  angemelbet,  bu  ^afl  bid^  angemetbet, 
er  :^at  fic^  angemelbet,  wir  ^aBen  un^  angemelbet,  i§r  l)aBt  eud^ 
angemelbet,  fie  ()aBen  (tc^  angemelbet. 


FIRST     PART 


SECOND    SECTION. 


SYNTAX 


142J  SYNTAX  OF  THE  AKTICLE.  51 


SYNTAX. 

139.  For  practical  reasons  we  divide  the  Syntax  into 
Special  and  General  Syntax. 

The  Special  treats  of  the  function  of  the  word,  inflected  or 
uninflected,  in  a  sentence. 

The  General  treats  of  the  combination  of  words  into  a 
sentence,  of  the  word-order,  and  of  the  combination  of 
clauses  into  a  compound  sentence. 

It  is  of  course  difficult  to  keep  these  two  divisions  separate,  as  in  fact  all  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  grammar.  Thus  the  separation  of  inflection  and  function,  of  phonol- 
ogy and  inflection,  of  word-formation  and  syntax  is  a  violent  one.  The  division  into 
special  and  general  syntax  is  the  custom  of  French  grammarians,  who  have  succeeded 
best  in  freeing  their  grammatical  system  from  the  strait-jacket  of  Latin  and  Greek 
grammars. 

SPECIAL    SYNTAX. 

The  parts  of  speech  are  treated  here  in  the  same  order  as  they  are  in  the  Accidence, 

Syntax  of  the  Article. 

140.  The  use  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  as  definite  article  is 
much  older  than  that  of  the  numeral  wCin"  as  indefinite  article.  „(i\n" 
was  used  where  the  definite  article  could  not  stand  ;  hence  the  plural  of 
ein  3)?ann  is  still  3Ji(iinner.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  article  is  still  lacking  ;  its  use 
spread  in  M.  H.  G. ,  so  that  now  it  is  almost  a  necessity. 

Some  General  Cases  of  Absence  of  the  Article. 

141.  Proper  names,  names  of  materials  always  when  pre- 
ceded by  nouns  expressing  quantity  and  measure,  have  no 
article.  Ex. :  ©oet^e  erreic^te  ein  ^o'^e^  filter,  ©critter  fiarb  »er^ 
|dltni^md§tg  jung.    S3(ei  i|l  weic^er  aU  (5)otr.    din  ^funt)  ^ndtx. 

142.  No  noun  preceded  by  a  genitive  can  take  an  article: 
Deg  ^enlcn^  %([Dtn  i^  gerriffen  (F.  1748).  Xtv  alien  ©otter  fcnnt 
®e»lntmel  (G.). 


52  STN^TAX   OF  THE   ARTICLE.  [143- 

143.  There  is  no  article  before  nouns  (connected  by  unt», 
iveter,  no^  or  unconnected)  in  certain  set  and  adverbial  phrases; 
iD  an  enumeration  of  objects  belonging  to  the  same  class  or 
genus.  Ex. :  ^t\\)  unt)  ®ut.  ^au^  unt)  ^of,  9Jiit  @ott  fiir  ^bnig 
unt  3SaterIant).  3"  @au5  unt)  33rau^»  @inn  unb  3Serftant)  ijerlier^ 
i6^  fdjier  (F.  2504).  g^ict^t  irMfc^  ift  fce^  3:^orett  3;ranl  nod)  ©pctfe 
(F.  301).  ©oa  ic^  mit  ®rip,  ^eifel,  ^cber  fd^reikn?  (F.  1732). 
Ura^ne,  ®ro§mutter,  Wlutkx  unt)  §int)  in  bumpfer  ©tube  beifammen  ftnt 
(Schwab).  3w  2;if(^,  su  53ette,  ^auiJ  an  Jpaus,  @tein  auf  @tein,  na(^ 
Dften,  gen  ©iiten,  »on  ^lorben  (but  notice  m  Djlen,  im  (Siiten,  etc. 

144.  All  pronouns  exclude  the  article,  except  foI(^,  man^, 
n>elc^,  ma^  fiir,  which  allow  an  indefinite  article  after  them,  and 
a(I(e),  which  allows  the  definite  article  after  it;  e.  g. :  2Ba^  foil 
all  ber  ©c^merj  unt  Suft  (G.).  Selc^  ein  gefc^aftig  3SoIf  eilt  ein  unt) 
au5  (id.).     S3a^  fiir  ein  Sant^mann  Mjl  tu,  3<i9Ci^*  (Sch.). 

145.  An  abstract  noun,  and  any  noun  denoting  profession, 
rank,  position  have  no  article  in  the  predicate  after  neuter 
verbs;  e.  g. :  ^^ilo!te't,ter  ganj  SRatnx  i^,  Bringt  auc^  ben  5'leo^tole'm 
gu  feiner  5^ahtr  mieber  juriid  (Le.).  ipei§e  SJZagtfter;  ^ct§e 'I^octor 
gar  (F.  360).  (3(^)  bin  ©olDat,  fomme  niemal^  n?ieber  (Sch.), 
Eng.,  I  am  a  soldier. 

146.  1.  In  technical  phrases  some  nouns  and  adjectives  used  as 
such  take  no  article  :  <S(|retber  btefe^,  the  writer  of  this ;  ^lager,  plaintiff; 
SSefagter;  ®ebad)ter;  Dbtge^;  ^olgenbe^,  etc.  In  headings  :  Ueber  5lnntut  wnb 
SSitrbe  (Sch.).     (Safu^Ie^re,  %\momkf^xt. 

2.    In  folk-lore  and  folk-songs :  9?otfap^d)enf  Little  Red  Riding-hood ; 

3:prc^en  fnarrt.    ^an^ltin  pfeift. 

Article  with  Proper  Nouns. 

147.  The  rule  is:  no  article  before  proper  nouns  just  as 
in  English. 

1.  Names  of  persons  may  take  an  article  when  the  bearer  is 


149J  ARTICLE  WITH  PROPER  NOUNS.  53 

well  known  and  his  name  lias  become  a  common  noun;  to  ex- 
press familiarity  and  intimacy,  also  contempt;  to  mark  gender 
and  case  more  clearly  (this  applies  also  to  names  of  places 
and  countries) ;  when  the  author's  or  artist's  name  is  used  for 
his  work;  before  names  of  planets,  of  ships,  of  the  characters 
of  a  play,  of  titles  of  books  taken  from  a  person.  Ex. :  Sin 
SBaj^incjton,  Der  Selfe,  Me  Dttonen.  Schiller's  Tell  and  Wallen- 
stein,  Goethe's  Gotz  and  Lassing's  M.  -von  Barnhelm  are  full 
of  examples  of  the  second  use  (familiarity,  etc.).  Die  Siifte  be5 
@o!ratey,  S3ar'i(^  tern  gertinant  gemefen,  tua^  Dctaijio  mir  wax  .  .  . 
(Sell.),  ^a^t  ftd)  nennen  ben  SCaHenftein  (Sch.)  (contempt). 
De^rient  fpielte  ten  ^^lat^an.  SHein  ?5reunt)  'i^at  ten  Sorot  »er!auft 
(painting  by  Corot).     Der  ^erfuleg  ijl  Bef^abigt. 

2.  Names  of  countries  and  provinces  which  are  not  neuter 
take  the  definite  article.  Most  of  these  are  feminine  and  a 
few  masculine,  viz.,  compounds  :  ter  33ret^gau,  S^^eingau,  ter 
<Suntgau;  also  ber  ^aag  (  + the  Hague);  ber,  ba^  Slfap.  Femi- 
nines  in  -ei  i  tie  2:urfei',  SCaKad^ci' ;  in  -an  t  tie  9)^olCan,  tie 
2Betterau ;  in  -mar! :  bie  5^eumarf ,  bie  Oftmarl ;  bie  2anfi^,  bte 
©djmeij,  bie  ^rimm,  bie  Seijante,  bie  ^falj.  Some  neuters  in  -lanb : 
H^  Sogtianb,  ^a^  SSenbtlanb,  bie  9lieberlanbe,  pi. 

3.  Names  of  oceans,  lakes,  straits,  rivers,  mountains,  and 
forests  always  have  the  definite  article,  e.  g.,  ba^  ^ittelmecr,  bie 
Dftfee,  ber  33ot)enfee,  ber  33elt,  ber  ©uttb,  ber  0l^ein,  bie  Donau,  ber 
iparj,  ber  @pe|Jart,  bie  %{ptn,  ber  ©c^tvar^njalb. 

4.  Names  of  the  seasons,  months,  days  of  the  week,  of  the 
streets  of  a  city:  „T)er  SBinter  ift  ein  S^renmann"  (Claudius). 
3m  3^ttuar,  be^  ©onntag^,  auf  or  in  ber  ^aiferftra^e,  im  grunting* 

148.  Appellatives  have  an  article  as  in  English:  bie  3:^rane 
quint,  bie  Srbe  l^at  mi(^  wieber  (F.  784).  For  exceptions  see 
141-146. 

149.  Abstract  nouns  have  no  article  when  they  denote  a 
characteristic  or  state  of  mind  :    ^nt  jeiget  auc^  ber  Mamdud; 


54  syot:ax  of  the  article.  [150- 

®e^orfam  ifl  tea  (E^riften  ©c^mucf  (Sch.).  ^reube  n?ar  in  S^roja^a 
fallen  (id.)  ^rteg  ift  ewig  jmifd^en  2tft  unt  5lr3mot)n  (id.).  But 
when  they  denote  an  act  or  motion  they  are  treated  as  appel- 
latives. They  may  also  take  the  article  that  has  generalizing 
force,  e.  g.,  'Der  Zo^  ifl  ber  eiinben  @o(b  (B.).  "tk  2Bal)l  fte^t  bir 
no(^  fret  (Sch.).  Die  ^unft  ift  lait^  \xn^  furj  ift  unfer  2e6en  (F. 
558-9).  Die  Sotfc^aft  ^orM(^  njot)l,  dlein  mir  fe^lt  ber  ^\auU 
(F.  765).     Daa  war  ein  @^uf  I  (Sch.). 

150.  Names  of  materials  have  the  generalizing  article, 
which  denotes  the  whole  kind  or  substance,  or  an  article  that 
singles  out  a  certain  kind  or  quantity,  e.  g,,  Der  SCein  erfreut 
tea  ^enfc^en  ^erg  (B.).  Daa  ®olb  ift  foftkr.  Die  @tein!o^le  ift 
f^marj  oter  Braun.  Without  article:  @i(ber  unb  ©olt  ()abe  id)  nic^t 
(B.).  33(ut  ift  gefloffen  (Sch.).  2af  mir  ben  beften  ^ed)er  SSeina  in 
)jurem  ®olte  reid)en  (G.). 

151.  Collective  nouns  take  an  article  except  when  taken 
in  a  partitive  sense:  2Baa  rennt  M^  3SoI!?  (Sch.).  SBeit  bal)intett 
n?ar  noc^  baa  3u§^o(!  (id.).    2Bir  :^aBen  Bu^^olf  uriD  9leiterei  (id.). 

152.  All  classes  of  nouns  qualified  by  an  adjective,  by  a 
genitive,  by  a  relative  clause,  etc.,  take  an  article  in  the  singu- 
lar, excepting  names  of  materials  and  nouns  in  the  vocative,  in 
the  predicate  or  in  certain  adverbial  phrases.  The  plural  has 
the  definite  article  or  none.  Ex. :  Der  fieine  ®ott  ber  3BeIt  Heibt 
(teta  i)on  gleic^em  (Sd)Iag  (F.  281).  Der  ®ott,  ber  (Sifen  n?a(^fen 
Ueg  ♦  ♦  ♦  (Amdt).  Die  ^auptftabt  ^on  ^ranfreid).  But  (®ie) 
fprac^en  (aut  i)oC(  6o^en  @inna  unb  ©efii^tea  (G.).  ^^ZaA  alter  ^Cseife. 
Sa  gab  fdjbnre  ^dtm  aU  bie  unfern  (Sch.).  Der  alte  33arkrojfa 
(Uh.). 

153.  The  genitive  preceding  a  noun  always  has  the  article 
except  a  proper  name  :  3n  bea  Wlaxmcx^  talk  3Cangen  (Sch.). 
3nbea  SCalbea  ^IJiitte  (id.).  Schiller's  „an  Ufcr'a  9lanb"  Goethe 
would  have  made  a  compound,  „Uferaranb."  Comp.  „S3ergea^ 
^o^Ie"  and  other  compounds  of  Goethe. 


158]  REPETITIOK   OF  THE   ARTICLE.  55 

154.  The  definite  article  stands  for  an  Eng.  possessive 
pronoun,  when  the  possessor  cannot  be  mistaken.  There 
may  or  may  not  be  a  personal  pronoun  as  object  in  the  sen- 
tence. Ex. :  X)er  ^opf  t^ut  mir  fo  mel)  (Song),  ^aht  i^r  mir  ten 
%mQcv  Mo0  genommen?  (Sch.).  ((Sie)  x\xi}xt  i^m  leife  tie  @d}ulter 
(H.  and  D.  4,  63).     See  243,  3. 

155.  1.  In  S.  G.  the  definite  article  is  always  applied  to  members  of 
the  family  instead  of  the  possessive  pronouns.  In  N.  G.,  as  in  Eng.,  no 
article  is  necessary:  ©riig^  ben  Skater  unb  3Jater<S  33ruber !  (Sch.). 

2.  As  with  proper  names  so  names  of  materials  and  abstract  nouns 
often  have  the  definite  article  in  the  genitive  and  dative  merely  to  show 
the  case :  bcr  5p?ilc^  SBaffer  »orjie|en. 

156.  The  definite  article  is  used  in  German  for  the  indefi- 
nite in  English  in  a  distributive  sense  :  53utter  foftet  antert^alb 
^axt  tac  ^funt,  a  pound  ;  tiefe^  Zud)  foftet  90  ^fenni9(e)  tie  ®(Ie ; 
fiinfmal  ta^  3^^)^  or  im  ^a)^xi^  This  "  a  "  in  Eng.  represents  the 
preposition  "  on,"  and  is  not  the  indefinite  article. 

157.  ©in  can  stand  in  German  before  certain  indefinite  pronouns  and 
neuter  adj.  where  it  does  not  stand  in  Eng.:  ein  ieber,  ein  jeglic^err  etn  foI(|er, 
ein  ntanc^er  (better  manc^  einer);  ein  fejle^,  =  a  fixed  sum;  ein  nte^rere^,  = 
more ;  ein  wenige^,  =  little.     3^  fc^reik  ncid^flen^  ein  me|rere^. 

Repetition  of  the  Article. 

158.  Before  each  of  several  nouns  of  different  gender  the 
article  must  be  repeated  if  it  stand  at  all:  2)er  ^oter,  t)ie  ^O'Jutter 
tie  gingen  Dor  te^  ipau|)tmattn^  S^au^  (Song).  If  two  nouns,  con- 
nected by  unt,  denote  different  persons  the  article  should  be 
repeated  :  ^er  DnM  unt  ^at^e  te^  ^inte^  toav  hi  ter  Zank 
gugegen  (one  person).  But  ter  Dn!el  unt  t)er  ^at^e  ♦  .  .  (two 
persons). 

Both  rules  are  often  offended  against  by  Luther,  Goethe,  and  Lessing, 
and  frequently  in  the  spoken  language  :  2Benn  man  ben  SJlaler  unb  Did^ter  mil 
einanber  ijergleic^en  will  .  .  .  (Le.). 

The  article  before  an  apposition  is  treated  as  in  English. 


66  SYKTAX   OF  THE   GENDEB.  [159 


SYNTAX   OF   THE   GENDER. 

159.  The  grammatical  gender  of  nouns  is  threefold,  mas- 
cuhne,  feminine,  neuter.  As  to  living  beings,  the  nouns  de- 
noting males  are  masculine,  and  those  denoting  females  femi- 
nine. Ex. :  ter  guc^g,  Some,  ter  gute  'Mam,  5^effe,  ^ned)t,  Dd)^, 
^ocf ;  tie  ^u^,  3iege,  8afe,  f(^5ne  'MaQl,  t>ie  @au,  @tute. 

1.  Exceptions :  nouns  denoting  the  young  of  animals,  diminutives, 
and  ba^  2Bei&,  ba^  9JJenfc()  (see  59),  t^a^  grauenjtmmer  are  neuter.  Ex. :  bad 
gerfel,  Mullen,  Mb,  SWabc^en,  ^raukin. 

2.  Any  grammatical  gender  is  ascribed  to  the  names  of  the  species 
without  regard  to  sex.  Neuter:  bad  ^fixh,  bad  ©(^wein,  bad  <S(^af,  bad 
9tc^.  Fern. :  bie  ^a^tiQaU,  Slmeife,  S3iene,  2«aud,  S^atte.  Masc. :  ber  %i\^, 
^afe,  !Dad)d,  Suc^d. 

160.  Where  the  grammatical  gender  does  not  coincide 
witli  the  natural,  the  following  rules  may  be  of  service,  based 
on  the  meanings  of  nouns  and  on  their  derivation.  See  159,  1. 

Gender  according  to  meaning. 

1.  Masculine  are  : 

The  names  of  the  points  of  compass,  of  the  winds,  seasons, 
months,  days  of  the  week;  of  mammals  (a  few  small  ones  like 
W  Wlau^,  W  3flatte  excepted),  most  of  the  larger  birds,  most 
fish,  and  stones. 

Ex. :  ter  9florb  or  9lorkn;  ©ommer;  %tbxmx,  3lugu'jl;  ^ontag, 
©onnabent);  ter  Sfel,  Sbtre,  Slefant ;  ter  ©trauf,  Slbler,  @tor(^;  ter 
ipai,  5lal,  ^arpfen  (all  compounds  with  -ftf(^,  of  course,  as  ter 
Salftf^,  ^appcnftfc^) ;  ter  ^iefel,  l^iama'nt,  %d\)\pat 

2.  Feminine  are  : 

The  names  of  most  rivers,  trees,  plants,  and  flowers  (in  -e), 
insects,  small  singing  birds,  and  nearly  all  derivative  abstract 
nouns. 


161]  GENDER   ACCORDING   TO   DERIVATION.  57 

Ex. :  Me  Befer,  Dber,  SI6e  ;  Me  Std)e,  Zamt,  33u(^e  ;  tie  ^f^elfe, 
^io\^,  mu,  5flej[et,  ^artoffcl;  Me  5lmetfe,  SCanje,  33iene;  Me  9lad)tigall, 
©c^malk,  2er(^e;  also  Cie  ^rd()e,  Sule*  Die  2iek,  3:ugenti,  SuQfttt), 
2)emut,  SreunMid)!eit,  etc. 

3.  Neuter  are  : 

The  names  of  places  and  countries  except  those  always  hav- 
ing the  article  (see  147,  2),  collective  nouns  (particularly  those 
with  ®c-) ;  most  names  of  materials  including  metals,  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet;  other  parts  of  speech  used  as  nouns, 
particularly  adjectives  not  denoting  persons  (see  169). 

Ex. :  „ta5  fd^bne  ©panien/'  „etn  Hein  ^avi^,"  ba^  3Sol!,  ^eer,  ®e^ 
birge,  ®ef(^u^ ;  tae  ^ols,  ^eu,  ©d^malj,  Dbft ;  ta^  (Sifen,  ^lei,  ^upfer, 
3tnn;  ba^  SB,  i);  ba3  33ummeltt,  „Va^  SCemt  unD  tas  3tber/'M5 
@ute,  ba^  SSa^re,  bag  (5d)one* 

Remark.— So  many  rivers  are  feminine  because  they  are  compounded  with  -aha 
(  +  Lat.  aqua)  :  3Befcr  and  SBerra  <  Wcsera(h),  Werraha;  tie  SaljaCd)).  But  notice  ber 
at^ein,  aJJaiit.  !Die  ©(^njetj,  SEflvtei  have  the  article  really  on  account  of  their  exceptional 
gender.    American  rivers  are  masculine :  ber  §ubjon,  ber  aHo^awl. 

161.     Gendek  according  to  derivation  and  endings. 

1.  Masculine  are  : 

Most  monosyllables  by  ablaut,  e.  g.,  ber  ©^ru(i^,  (S|)rog,  @ti(^, 
®ct)irm ;  those  in  -er,  -ler,  -ner  (denoting  agents) ;  in  -el  (denot- 
ing instrument) ;  all  in  -ling ;  many  in  -en ;  dissyllables  in  -e 
according  to  the  n-declension  (denoting  living  beings) ;  in  -id). 

Ex.:  ber  ©c^reiber,  ^iinftler,  ^fortner;  ber  'Dedel,  ipe&el,  ber  ?^remb^ 
ling,  ©iinftling,  ©angling;  ber  ©egen,  'Degen;  corresponding  to 
Eng.  -om,  53nfen,  53efen;  ber  ^nak,  Sijtpe,  ^ote;  ®anferi(^,  SBiite^ 
x\^,  gitti^. 

2.  Feminine  are: 

Many  dissyllables  (by  ablaut,  see  496)  in  -e ;  abstract  nouns 
in  -e,  mainly  from  adjectives  ;  in  -ie,  mostly  foreign;  many  in 


6o  SYNTAX   OF  THE   GENDER.  .         [162- 

-4 ;  all  in  -ei,  -in,  -ung,  -|eit,  -!ett,  -fi^aft  i   some  in  -r.U  and 
-fal;  foreign  ones  in  -age  (see  163,  5). 

Ex.:  bie  ®rofe,  ipo^e;  tie  (Spra(^e,  ®aBe:  tie  ^^ilofo^ie,  ®alan^ 
terie  ;  tie  ^aft,  9Jlac^t,  ,^raft;  tie  3<i9ft*ei,  3urifterei,  ^OZelotei;  tie 
greuntin,  Se'^rerin  ;  tie  Dultung,  SBitmung ;  tie  ^reit>eit,  ^rommig^ 
fett;  i^reuntfdjaft ;  tie  SBiltni^,  ?5aulni^;  tie  ^lamage,  Sourage, 

3.  Neuter  are: 

All  in  -(^en,  -lein ;  most  in  -fel,  -fal,  -ni^,  -turn ;  nearly  all  of 
the  form  ^e-e  or  ®e-  without  e;  some  in  -el. 

Ex.:  ta^  ^iintc^en,  ^ndblein;  ta^  Mtid,  UberHeibfel;  ta^  ©d)i(f^ 
fftl,  Sabfa(;  ta5  ©etac^tni^,  3Sermd(^tni^;  ta^  ^onigtum,  (E^riftentum 
(only  two  masc,  ter  9lei(^tum  and  3^t*tum);  tai5  ©efilte,  ©erndlte; 
ta^  (SeHIt,  ®ef^icf ;  ta0  53iintel,  ©eftntel,  and  the  S.  G.  diminu- 
tives ta^  9lintel,  33ukl,  etc. 

On  the  whole  the  gender  of  nouns  has  changed  very  little  in  the  history  of  the  lan- 
guage. Ex.  of  changes  are:  bie  ©itte  <  O.  H.  G.  der  situ,  already  M.  H.  G.  sometimes 
(Hu  site.  ®ie  SSIume  was  O,  H.  G.  both  masc.  and  fern.  ®ie  ga^ne  was  O.  H.  G.  der 
fano. 

162.  The  following  groups  of  nouns  have  varying  genders, 
though  some  are  of  the  same  origin  and  have  the  same  mean- 
ing. They  should  be  fully  treated  in  the  dictionary,  to  which 
the  student  is  referred.  Only  a  few  examples  are  given  in 
each  group. 

\st  group.     The  same  form  and  meaning,  but  double  gender  (m.  and 

n.) ;  ter  and  ba^  5)?eter,  2;^ermome'ter,  SSarome'ter,  23evci(^,  <Sd)recfen,  Bciuv  etc. 

2c?  group.  Double  gender  (m.  and  f.)  with  varying  forms,  but  the 
same  meaning  and  origin  :  ter  ©d)urj  —  tie  ©(!)urje;  ber  Xru))))  —  bie  IJruppe; 
ber  Duett —  bie  Duette;  ber  ©^jalt  — bie  (Spalte. 

^d  group.  Double  gender,  the  same  form  in  sg.  and  pi.  if  the  plural 
be  formed  of  both  genders,  but  of  diflferent  meaning  and  sometimes  of 
diflferent  origin  (the  latter  with  *). 


163] 


GENDER  OF   FOREIGN   WORDS. 


59 


All  adjectives :  ber  ®ute,   +   the  good  man  ;  bte  ®ute,  +   the  good 
woman ;  pi.  bte  ®uten« 


ber  |)eibe,  heathen 

bte  ^eibe,  heath 

pi.  bie  ^eiben 

*ber  aSuire,  bull 

bte  S3uIIe  (document) 

bie  Sullen 

ber  (£rte,  heir 

ba^  ®rk,  inheritance 

bte  (£rben 

ber  iBerbienfl,  earnings 

ta^  S^erbienfl,  desert,  merit 

bie  S^erbienfic 

*ber  ©eifel/  hostage 

bie  ®et§el,  scourge 

bte  Oci^eln 

-fcln 
bie  W\ftx 

*ber  3)?effer,  measurer 

bai  5)?effer,  knife 

There  are  perhaps  forty  in  all. 

4:fh  group.  Double  gender,  double  plural,  but  different  meaning  and 
sometimes  different  origin  (the  latter  marked  *).  Perhaps  a  dozen  or 
more. 

ber  Sanb,  volume  pi.  SScinbe  ba^  Sanb,  ribbon  pi.  S^anber 

*ber  Max^A),  march  23'Jarfc^e  bte  Wlax^d),  marsh  SD^arfi^en 

ber  (Sc^ilb,  shield  @^tlbe  ba(3  ©c^tlb,  sign-board  ®(f>ilber 

*ber  3;^or,  fool  Sl^oren  ba^  Xi)cx,  gate  Z^oxt 


Gender  of  foreign  words. 

163.  Foreign  words  retain  generally  the  original  gender  : 
W  ^eitt  <  L.  poena,  later  pena  ;  ta^  ^(ofter  <  L.  claustrum  ; 
fcer  Verier  <  L.  carcer{em). 

Many  have  changed  gender  for  various  reasons.  They  were 
fully  Germanized  and  followed  German  models  according  to 
ending  or  meaning,  or  they  followed  French  (Romance)  rules. 
Some  changes  are  difficult  to  account  for. 

1.  Examples  of  neuter  nouns  that  became  masculine,  masculines  that  be- 
came neuter,  and  feminines  that  became  neuter :  ber  ^alci'^,  <  palatium  ; 
ber  S3alfam,  <  balsamum ;  ber  Si}Jantel,  <  mantellum ;  ber  9)reig,  <  pr^- 
tium ;  ber  5)unftf  <  punctum.  Neuter  nouns  in  -at :  ba^  ^onfula't,  <  con- 
sulatics  ;  ba^  %oxma' tf  formatum  or -us;  ba§  9tie^,  <  V.  L.  risma  (f.) ;  ba* 
^reuj,  <  cruc{em)  (f.). 

2.  Examples  of  nouns  that  have  changed  gender  in  analogy  with  Ger- 
man words  similar  in  meaning  and  ending :  ber  Biegel,  <  tegula ;  ber 


60  SYNTAX   OF  THE   GENDER.  164- 

SWarmor,  marmor,  n.,  on  account  of  ber  ©tein  (see  160, 1) ;  ber  ^orper,  < 
corpus,  n.  ;  ber  ^aba'^cr,  <  cadaver,  n,,  on  account  of  ber  Set5,  ber  Ceic^^* 
nam,  and  the  many  masculines  in  -er;  bie  9?ummer/  <  numerus,  since  bit 
341.     ©uropa,  ©parta,  3lt^en,  Zxm,  now  all  neuter  (see  160,  3). 

3.  Nouns  in  -arium,  -orium,  -erium,  -are,  became  all  masculine  in 
analogy  with  H.  G.  words  in  -er,  <  cere  <  ari  :  ber  Sltta'r,  <  altare ;  ber 
teller,  <  cellarium ;  ber  9)fcilter,  <  psaltenum;  ber  SBei^er,  <  O.  H.  G. 
wiwdri  <  vivarium  ;  ber  9)ia)ler,  <  It.  piasira,  f.,  <  V,  L.  plastrum. 

4.  Neuter  nouns,  whose  plural  ended  in  -a  in  Gr.  or  L.,  became 
feminine  in  German  from  analogy  with  femiuines  in  -e,  <  a,  and  also 
through  Romance  influence :  bie  Stkl;  <  biblion,  V.  L.  MbUa  ;  bie  Drgel, 
<  organum,  -a;  bie  ^Jfriinbe,  <  V.  L.  provenda  (pi.) ;  bie  <Stubie,  < 
studiiim  ;  bie  9)ramie,  <  premium. 

5.  Words  in  -a'ge,  masculine  and  feminine  in  French,  are  all  feminine 

in  G.,  e.  g.,  bie  33aga'ge,  bie  33Iama'ge,  bie  Soura'ge,  etc.  "Die  ©d)rift,  <  scrip- 
turn,  bie  ^Ci^i,  <  pactum,  are  due  to  analogy  with  G.  nouns  in  -t,  viz., 
bie  Srac^t,  ®i(|t,  (S^x^t,  ?Wa^t,  etc. 

Gender  of  compound  nouns. 

164.     Compound  nouns  have  the  gender  of  the  last  noun : 

tev  ^irnbaum,  bie  ^au^tljiir,  t;aS  @d)ilt)er^au^,  ta^  ^rauenjimmer 
(lady). 

Exceptions  :  a.  Many  compounds  with  -mut :  bie  !Demut,  bie  2Be^ntut, 
bie  ©anftmut;  but  ber  ^oc^mut,  ber  Sveimut,  etc.  They  are,  however,  only 
seeming  exceptions,  -mut  going  back  to  compounds  with  O,  H.  G.  and 
M  H.  G.  -muot,  m.,  and  -muoti,  f.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  double 
gender  of  the  same  noun:  0.  H.  G,  hohmuoti,  f.  only,  but  M.  H.  G. 
hochmuete,  Tiochmuot,  f.,  and  liochmuot,  m.  ;  bie  2)emut,  <  M.  H.  G. 
diemuete,  diemuot,  always  feminine:  ber  ^leinmut,  bie  5lnmut,  bie  ®ropmut; 
also  ber  ©ro^mut;  always  ber  $0(^m«t.  For  5lrmut,  which  is  no  compound 
with  -mut,  see  511,  2,  a. 

h.  2)tr  Slbf^eu  seems  an  exception,  because  bie  (S(^eu  is  old  and  more 
common  than  ber  ©c^eu. 

c.  Names  of  cities  and  places  are  neuter  even  if  ending  in  nouns  of 
different  gender :  ba«  f^one  Hamburg,  Simel^urg,  5lnMberc|,  etc. ;  but  bie  2Bart^ 
burg,  ^errenburg,  because  these  are  castles,  =  SSurgeH,  f.,  and  not  towns. 


168]  COKCORD   OF   GENDERS.  61 

d.  2)er  9Httttt)0(|  (Soc^e,  f.)  appears  by  the  side  of  the  legitimate  bie 
-3)?ittt»0(^,  already  in  M.  H.  G.  It  has  followed  the  other  days  of  the 
week,  which  are  all  masculine.     (See  160.  1). 

e.  T)k  SlnttDort  had  double  gender  in  O.  H.  G.,  but  the  neuter  was 
more  common.    Luther  has  still  bie  and  ta^  5lnttt)ort. 

Concord  of  genders. 

165.  This  subject  can  be  best  treated  under  the  head  of 
concords  as  between  noun  and  adjective,  noun  and  pronoun, 
subject  and  predicate.  The  general  rule  that  adjectives  and 
pronouns  take  the  grammatical  gender  of  the  noun  to  which 
they  refer  is  only  set  aside  when  the  grammatical  gender  does 
not  coincide  with  the  sex.  In  that  case  the  pronoun  or  adjec- 
tive can  take  the  natural  gender. 

166.  9)?abd)en,  SUJoigblein,  SBeife,  Sraulcin  admit  of  this  construction  ac- 
cording to  the  sense,  most  commonly ;  not  so,  ^inb,  grauenjimntcv,  Wlam^ 
Uin,  <SiJ^nIcin,  and  the  other  diminutives  :  Unb  [d)netl  war  i^re  ©))ur  i>erloren» 
foklb  ha^  9)?ab<^en  5lt)fd)teb  na^m  (Sch.).  3tM^  3)?ab(i)cn  i^^^,  ba<3  »ertrteknc, 
bie  bu  gewa^It  ^aft  (H.  and  D.,  IV.  210).  Du  geknebeietc  unter  ben  9Beibern(B.). 
(Sie  unglit(fli(^er,  'Bit  unglucflii^e,  you  unhappy  man,  woman.  The  adjective 
therefore  also  agrees  with  the  sex. 

i^rciulein  and  the  diminutives  of  names  of  females  have  „bie"  sometimes 
in  colloquial  language :  bie  ^^xmlm,  bie  (Sop^te'd>em  bie  !Dort(^en  (Dorothy). 
But  „3^re  ^rciulein  %od)Ux"  is  quite  common  and  correct :  3^re  %xdulm 
%<id)kx  .  .  .  war  auiSgelaffen  (unrestrained)  (G.). 

167.  Names  in  the  predicate,  not  capable  of  forming  a  feminine  from 
a  masculine,  like  Cc^rerin  <  Sel)rer,  3Sorfie^erin  <  ^^orjleljer,  of  course  retain 
the  grammatical  gender,  no  matter  what  the  sex  of  the  subject :  ©ie 
warb  .  .  .  gleid)  mit  ^efonberer  9ld)tung  aU  ®afl  Be^anbelt  (G.).  But  even  pre- 
dicate nouns  capable  of  forming  a  feminine  by  suflSx  if  used  in  the  ab- 
stract sense,  and  not  the  personal,  form  an  exception,  e.  g.,  ^ixx,  ?!)?et|ler  fein 
or  tuerben,  "  to  be  or  become  master  of."  2)enn  i(^  Vvx  euer  ^onig  (Sch.). 
©ie  war  ber  SJerhec^er  (id.). 

168.  The  neuter  pronouns  (c^,  jete^,  ba^,  afle^,  etc.)  may  refer 
to  a  masc.  or  fem.  noun,  even  to  the  plural  and  to  a  masc.  and 


62  SYI^TAX   OF   I^ UMBER.  [169- 

fern,  noun  together :  @ie  fommen  t)erijor  ein  S3eiB  ta,  ein  Wmn 
♦  «  .  fcag  reit  nun,ev3  njttl  fid)  erge^en  fogleid),  tie  Jln^el  jur  Dbmte, 
=  they  stretch  their  bones  for  the  dance,  eager  to  enjoy  them- 
selves (in  Goethe's  „Zokntan^").  5llle5  rennet,  rettet,  pd^tet  (Sch.). 
"La  maQ  tenn  ©d^merg  unD  ®enn§,  ©eltngen  unt  5>emu§  mit  einanter 
n?ec^feln  mie  eg  !ann  (F.  1756-8).  @tillfd)n?eigent  Morten  fte  (three 
persons)  ^n,  inum  jelieg  in  fic^  felbfl  ^uriidfe^^rte  (G.). 

169.  When  adjectives  are  used  substantively,  the  mascu- 
line and  feminine  denote  sex,  the  neuter  an  abstract  noun  or 
thing:  Uv  ®ute,  bie  ®ute,  the  good  man,  woman;  bag  ®nte,  the 
good  (abstract),  ^omm^  |eraB,  o  ^olbe  (Sd)one,  unb  »erla§  bein 
ftol^eg  ©(^log  (Sch.).  T)u  ^ajt  iperrac^eg  ijoa&rac^t  (id.).  T)ag  33o|e, 
bag  i(^  ni(^t  ti?itl,  bag  t^^ue  id)  (B.). 


SYNTAX    OF   SINGULAR  AND   PLURAL. 

170.  Names  of  persons  and  materials  can  take  a  plural 
only  when  they  denote  several  persons,  species,  or  kinds,  viz., 
Cie  ipeinrid^e,  bie  8ert^ag,  bie  Die  (the  various  kinds  of  oil),  bie 
(^rdfer,  bie  %dk,  bie  ©alje^ 

171.  Abstract  nouns  do  not  as  a  rule  admit  of  a  plural, 
but  as  in  English  the  plurals  of  such  nouns  were  once 
quite  common,  viz.,  50^inne,  ®nabe,  SBonne,  ipult,  S^re*  Some 
of  these  plurals  are  left  in  certain  phrases:  in  S"^ren,  gu  S^ren; 
»on  ®otteg  ©naben  ;  ju  @Wben  fommen  (affen,  to  be  guilty  of; 
(Sw.  (53naben  ;  bie  .^errfc^aften.  Compare  Eng.  thanks,  loves  (in 
Shakspere),  favors,  regards. 

172.  To  the  sg.  -mann  in  composition  corresponds  often  -I cute,  pi. 
only,  which  in  sense  really  corresponds  to  SJIenfc^;  9}?cnfc^cn,  without  regard 
to  sex.  Examples :  Sbelmann  —  ©belleute,  gentry  ;  Canbmann,  peasant,  — 
Canblcute,  country  folk  :  ©^emanit;  married  man,  —  S'^elcute,  married  people ; 
but  the  pi.  S^emd'nner  means  " marriod  men"  ;  ^u'^rmami  —  t^ut^rleutc,  driv- 
ers, carters  ;  ilaufmann  —  ^aufleutc,  merchants,  etc.     But  S3icbermamt,  hon- 


177]  SYNTAX   OF   SINGULAR  AND   PLURAL.  63 

est  man  ;  S^renmanm  man  of  honor ;  8taat^mann,  and  a  few  more,  form 
only  the  regular  plural  in  -er. 

173.     For  certain  nouns  which  form  no  plural,  plural  compounds  are 
used,  some  of  wliich  have  also  a  singular. — E.g. : 


ba^  %tmv 

bie  ^euer^hiinfte 

ber  3;ob 

bie  3:cbe«faIIc 

ber  fRat 

bie  0tatfd)Ia9e 

ber  T)anf 

bie  2)an!ra9Uti9en 

174.  Nouns  only  used  in  the  plural  are  : 

a.  Diseases :  Slattern,  5S)?afcrti,  9toteIn. 

h.  Certain  dates :  Dfterit,  9)ftn9flen,  2Bei^na(^ten,  ^^erien,  gaften,  m  Sod)en 
=  in  childbed. 

c.  Names  of  relationship  :  Sltern;  ®e6ruber,  brothers,  as  ©ekitber  ®rimm, 
the  brothers  Grimm,  but  generally  only  in  the  names  of  firms  ;  ®cfd)tvifter, 
brothers  and  sisters,  rarely  in  the  sg.  =  brother  and  sister ;  other  nouns 
as  ®efilbe,  Binfen,  S3rleffc^aften,  einfiinftc,  etc. 

175.  Masc.  and  neuter  nouns  denoting  quantity,  weight, 
extent,  preceded  by  numerals,  stand  in  the  singular,  but  fern, 
nouns  (except  ^axt)  in  the  plural  as  in  Eng.,  e.g.,  6  (^\a^  ^ier, 
10  5a§  SBetn;  „an  bie  ^reimal  t)uutcrttaufent)  WUnn"  (Song  of  Prince 
Eugene),  5  %n^  tief,  3  maxt  70  ^fenni9(c),  70  x  7  ==  ftcKnisig 
mat  [Kkn  mal  (B.).  Eeminines  :  3  ^iikn  keit,  10  ^lafdjen  ^ort? 
min,  12  8tun^en.  The  coins,  ba^  3^^)^,  ^^^  SJJoitat,  8c^ritt  gener- 
ally stand  in  the  plural,  e.  g.,  50  ^fenni^e  madden  5  ®rof(^en, 
3  i)u!atert,  20  (S^ritte  latig;  yet  also  sing.,  „90  3ci^r — geBiicft  jum 
2;obe";  7  ^3}iottat(e)  alt;  but  jebn  m<ixt 

176.  In  older  German  the  plural  was  used  in  all  genders  just  as  in 
Eng.  That  the  singular  was  ever  used  came  from  the  analogy  of  masc. 
nouns  and  "  diu  mare  "  with  the  neuter  nouns,  in  all  of  which  sing,  and 
pi.  would  not  be  distinguished.  See  431,  2.  The  fern,  of  the  n-declen- 
sion  never  followed  this  analogy.  For  S!)?ann  see  59.  Compare  the  Eng. 
"  a  ten-year-old  boy,"  now  colloquial.  "  Year  "  is  an  old  plural  just  like 
Sa^r.     In  the  D.  pi.  the  coins,  etc.,  in  175  almost  always  have  eit. 

177.  Notice  the  use  of  the  singular  in  German  for  English  plural  in 


64  SYNTAX   or  THE   CASES.  [178- 

sucli  phrases  as :  iinter  bem  ^ierten  unb  fitnften  ®rabe  norblic^er  SSreite  (Hu.) ; 
ber  erfle  unb  ber  fiinfte  35er^  ivurbe(u)  gefungen;  bte  brei  ©(f)uler  miiffen  jur  <5trafc 
tie  ^anb  auf  ben  5Wunb  legen;  »tele  ^aben  t>a^  Cekn  ijerloren,  many  lives  were 
lost  or  many  lost  their  lives. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  CASES. 
Nominative. 

178.  The  nominative  is  the  case  of  the  subject  and  of 
direct  address:  SJ^eitt  gveunt,  tie  3citen  lev  ^eniangen()eit  ftnD  un^ 
ein  33u(^  mit  fiekn  ©iegeln  (F.  575-6).  *3nit  eudj,  §err  Doctor,  ju 
fpajieren  ift  e^ren^oH  unt  ift  ©eminn  (F.  941).     Absolute  N.  297. 

179.  Neuter  verbs  and  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  which 
govern  two  accusatives  in  the  active,  are  construed  with  a 
predicate  nominative.     See  270. 

Such  are :  1.  <Bm,  mvhtw,  Wibtn,  hmUn,  fc^einen,  ^eipen  (to  be  called), 
gelten,  wa(|fen,  jlerten,  etc.:  2)ea  ^intmel^  ^^itgungen  ftnb  immcr  bie  kjlcn  (Le.). 
5ttter  %ch  mxh  neue^  Sebcn  (He.).  (£r  wirb  ein  Qxo^tx  ^v'mi  hi^  an  fein  (Snbe 
f(^einen(Sch.).  1)a^  aEein  madjt  f(^on  ben  SBeifen,  ber  ft^  jcber  biinft  ju  fein(Le.). 
These  verbs  denote  a  state  or  transition.  Preceded  by  aU  the  construc- 
tion may  be  called  an  apposition  :  Slflcin  cr  \iaxh  aU  Shrill  (F.  2953).  3d) 
fomme  aU  ®efanbter  bei^  (Btxi6)t^  (Sch.).  ®r  gilt  aU  ein  reic^er  ?Wann,  =  He 
passes  for  .  .  . 

2.  Verbs  of  calling,  thinking,  making,  choosing,  scolding,  viz., 
genannl,  gebac^t,  angefe^en,  gcmacl)t,  ktrad)tet,  geiva()lt,  gefc(}oItcn  merbcn,  and 
others:  SBil^elm  »on  Dranien  wirb  ber  ©(^weiger  genctnnt,  SSil^elm  von  bet 
fliZormanbie,  ber  ©rokrer.  Sr  n)arb  ein  2)ieb  gefdjolten,  aU  ein  3;augenid)t^ 
tetra^tet.    3d^  barf  mic^  md)t  be^  ©liide^  CieMing  fc^eltcn  (Korner). 

Genitive. 

180.  The  genitive  is  used  chiefly  as  the  complement  of 
nouns  and  adjectives,  but  also  of  the  verb  (object).  The  gen- 
itive with  nouns  expresses  the  most  varied  relations.  The 
principal  ones  are  briefly  given  and  illustrated  below.  Ger- 
man does  not  difier  from  other  languages. 


181]  SYKTAX   OF   THE   CASES— GEN-JTIVE.  65 

1.  G.  of  origin,  cause,  autliorsliip,  relationship:  2)a<3  SSunber  i|l  bei^ 
®laukna  UcOfte^  tint  (F.  766).    ®oet^e^  ^aujl.    2)ic  gritc^te  bc^  S3aume^. 

2.  Subjective  G.:  ©ie  Siek  ©otte^,  welc^e  p^er  ijl  benn  aHe  S^entunft  (B.). 
2)er  ©efang  ber  SJogeL     2)a^  tjl  ber  ^ampf  ber  9)ferbe  unb  ^tf(J)e  (Hu.). 

3.  Objective  G.:  Der  5(nMtd  biefer  ®egenb  (Hu.).  S)ie  ©rfinbung  ber  33uc^=- 
brucferfunjl. 

The  personal  pronoun  is  rarely  found  in  this  construction.    Instead  ol 

«bie  Ctek  feiner"  stands  ble  Ciebe  ju  i^m,  gegeu  i^n. 

4.  Possessive  G. :  De^  ^atum^  unjtc^tbare  ^anb  (Sch.).  2)er  ®arten  bc^ 
J?imtg«.  ®oc^  kffer  ift'f^,  il)r  faUt  in  ®Dtte«  ^anb  da  in  (bie)  ber  2JZenfc^en  (Sch.), 
Sometimes  the  possessive  pronoun  is  put  after  the  G.  in  colloquial  lan< 
guage.  Lessing  has  it  several  times :  2)a^  fc^ten  ber  alten  2lrti|len  i^i 
®ef(^ma(f  nic^t  ^u  fein  (Le.).    See  242,  3. 

5.  G.  of  quality  ov  characteristic :  S)er  bungling  eblen  ©efii^Ic^  (H.  and 
D.,  IV.  66). 

This  Qc.  and  the  preceding  stand  also  in  the  predicate  after  neuter 
verbs  :  ©eUi^  finb,  bie  reined  |)erjen^  ftnt*  (B.).  ©iner  9)?einun9  fein;  be^  3:obc^ 
fein.  ,  (£in  fDld)cr  Staffer jlanb  war  alfo  eineiS  Sllter^  mtt  ben  ro^en  'Denfmdiern 
menfc^ltdjen  ^unflflei^e^  (Hu.). 

6.  Appositive  or  specifying  G.:  !Der  i^e^ler  bea  Slrgnjo'^n^;  ha^  Sajler  ber 
Srunffuc^t;  bie  ©itnbe  ber  Unbanfbarfeit.     ^arl  er^ielt  ben  SSeinamen  bea  ©ropen. 

This  G.  and  that  of  characteristic  are  frequently  supplanted  by  i)on  + 
Dative  :  Sine  dx^t  »ott  ^o|em  Sllter  n>urbe  »om  23li^e  getroffen.  !Dicb  ijon  (einem) 
Sebienten;  ^^eufet  i)on  2Betk  (Le.).    See  Prepositions,  303,  15. 

7.  Pariitive  G.,  dependent  upon  nouns  of  quantity,  weight,  measure ; 
with  numerals,  various  pronouns ;  comparative  and  superlative.     Ex.  : 

%^\xi  nir^ta  (=  no  matter).  (£r  (ber  9)?antel)  ^at  ber  S^ropfen  niel^r  (Le.).  9?imber 
S5efd)eiben^eit  gcnug  (id.).  !Dem  ret(|te  fte  ber  ©aben  "bel^e,  ber  SBIumen  allerfc^onfte 
bar  (Sch.).  ?5unf  unfer(3  Drben^  tx>aren  fc^on  .  ♦  .  be(3  fii'^nen  9)?utea  Dpfcr 
iDorben  (id.).  Saffl  mir  ben  tejlen  S3ed)er  2Ceina  in  purem  ©olbe  reic^en  (G.).  2)u 
fc^lugft  bi(^  bur(^  mit  ^unbert  ai^tjig  ^^\m  burc^  i^rer  3:aufenb  (Sch.).  Unfer  eincr 
fann  ftd^  ba^  ni(^t  leijlen,  =  "  One  like  (of)  us  cannot  afford  that." 

181.  In  the  spoken  language  and  also  in  the  classics  (excepting 
poetry)  this  partitive  G.  has  passed  into  mere  apposition  ;  especially 
after  nouns  of  weight,  measure  ;  after  numerals  ;  after  ntcl)ta,  ntd)tf  and 
the  indefinite  pronouns.  Ex. :  (£tn  9)funb  %^u  ;  brei  (Sc^effel  .*^orn.  Stlva^ 
(S(|onea,  nid)ta  S3i)fea,  ijtel  ®utea  are  no  longer  felt  as  genitives.     The  adjec- 


66  SYNTAX   OE  THE   CASES— GEKITIYE.  [182- 

tive  used  as  noun  is  governed  independently  of  the  pronoun  or  numeral. 

Ex. :  Beigt  b<x^  »erfalfc^te  SBlatt  nid)t,  man  woUe  ju  md)t^  ©utem  un5  ijerBinben  ? 
(Sch.).  Txi^  fonnte  ju  etwa^  ®c|re(fUc^em  fit^ren  (id.).  From  Luther  to  Lessing 
this  G.  is  still  quite  frequent,  and  it  still  remains  in  certain  phrases,  e.  g., 
^ier  ift  meine^  Sleiben^  m6)U  "  I  cannot  stay  here."  SSiel  5luf^ei)en^  madjen, 
"  to  make  much  ado."  SBenn  t(^  mit  9Henf(^en^  unb  mit  ©ngeljungcn  rebete  unb 
l^citte  ber  lBie{>e  nic^t  ♦  .  .  (B.),  literally  "and  had  nought  of  charity."  It  is 
supplanted  by  yottf  au^,  unter  +  D.  See  Prepositions,  303.  2Ber  »on  un^, 
unter  un^  ? 

Genitive  Dependent  upon  Adjectives. 

182.  It  stands  after  adjectives  denoting  possession  and 
interest  or  lack  and  want;  fulness  or  emptiness;  knowledge  or 
ignorance;  desire  or  disgust;  guilt  or  innocence;  e.  g.,  fal)!^, 
H)a^ait,  ftc^er,  teil^aftig,  wnfat)ig;  Bar,  *lo^;  *yot(,  *fatt,  leer,  quttt, 
ijerluftig;  !untig,  *geiDa^r,  unfunbig;  *mute,  Begieng;  fc^ulDig,  lettg, 
etc.  Ex.:  X)eg  hn^tn  ipaber^  miite  (Bii.).  De^  Set6e^  Bift  bu  Iet)ig 
(id.).  T)e^  (S3eric()t5  fcBuItig  (B.).  (^;engfte)  Beciierig  be^  ©tailed  (H. 
and  D.,  VI.  313).  @te  fmt)  iJoU  fu§en  S3etn^  (B.).  T)u  Bift  e5  bo^ 
jufriebett,  Skitter  ?  (Le.). 

183.  The  adjectives  marked  *  and  others  not  given  admit  also  of 
the  accusative.  In  the  last  illustration  „e^"  was  felt  as  A.,  and  therefore 
,M^"  is  much  more  common.  See  Pronouns,  199, 3.  E.  g.,  3d)  Hn  \><x<i 
fatt,  mubCr  *'I  have  enough  of  it,"  "  am  tired  of  it." 

The  prepositions  m6),  ijon,  etc.,  +  D.  frequently  supplant  the  geni- 
tive, e.g.,  w^egterig  m^  bem  (Staltc"  would  be  commoner;  »ott,  rein  fein  »on 
tVCQdi. 

Genitive  after  Verbs. 

184.  It  may  stand  as  nearer  object,  as  remoter  object,  and 
zidverbially. 

As  direct  object  after  verbs  with  meanings  similar  to  tbe 
adjectives  in  182;  also  adjten,  tvarten,  barren,  gotten,  Iad)en,  fc^onen 
genie^en,  fterBen,  ))flcgen,  benfen,  i?ergejfen,  lo^nen,  ijerfe^Ien,  Brau^cn, 
and  others. 


187]  SYKTAX   OF  THE   CASES — GENITIVE.  6? 

Ex.  :  2)aa  SJergipmeinntc^t.  3c()  benfe  beiit  (G.).  ^mQtx^  flerkn.  £)a^  lo^nt 
bcr  ^JJliiI)e  nid)t,  =  It  is  not  worth  tlie  trouble.  (?§  finb  nid^t  olle  fret  bic 
i^rer  tetten  fpotten  (Le.).   ®ehau(i)tber  3eit,  fie  ge^t  fo  fc^nell  »on  l>innen  (F.  1908). 

185.  After  verbs  governing  an  A.  of  the  person  the  G.  of 
the  thing  stands  as  remoter  object,  such  as  judicial  verbs,  those 
with  privative  meaning,  verbs  of  emotion ;  after  many  reflexive 
verbs  with  meanings  similar  to  the  adjectives  in  182,  e.g.,  3eil)en, 
i)ernagen,freifpre(^en,  kfd^ulcigen,  berauben,  entlaien,  entlajfen,  entMnben, 
iiber^ckit,  yerfti^ern,  kle^ren,  ma^nen,  and  others  ;  fid)  freuen,  befcie^ 
tten,  erinnern,  fc^cimen,  kflei^en,  erfrec^en,  fic^  m^xcn. 

Ex. :  (Stttlafft  tntc^  meiner  9(^nen))rok,  \6^  will  eu(^  eurcr  njieberum  entlaffen 
(La).  SBer  fann  mid^  einer  ©unbe  jet|en  ?  (B.).  Senianb  be*?  Sanbe«J  yertveifen  ; 
eineiS  S5erkec^en(S  anflageii,  iikrfii|)ren,  etc.  ©ntf(^lage  bid)  allcr  fc^tvarjen  ®ebanfcn 
(Le.).  2)u  barfll  bi^  beiner  Sal}I  nic^t  fd)amen  (Sch,).  But  many  of  these  gen- 
itives are  supplanted  by  auf,  iikr  +  A.,  and  by  A.  alone. 

186.  Certain  impersonal  verbs  expressing  feelings,  which 
are  construed  with  the  A.  of  the  person  feeling  and  with  the 
G.  of  the  cause  and  object  of  the  feeling. 

Ex. :  @<3  efelt  mtc^,  e<3  reut,  erl6armt,  jantmert,  vcrbrie^t  mic^ ;  e^  lo^nt  fic^. 
•Darot)  erkrmt  ben  ^irten  bca  alten  l^o'^en  ^crrn  (Uh.).  Unb  brt  cr  ba^  35olf  fa'^c, 
jamnterte  i^n  beffelbigen  (B.).  But  the  nominative  supplants  here  the  A.  of 
the  person,  and  the  A.  the  G.  in  the  spoken  language  as  a  rule;  „t^"  was 
again  felt  as  A.  See  183.  Ex.:  !Da^  Qereut  mic^,  bauert  mid^.  2)er  ®ered)te 
er^armt  fic|  feine^  aJie|e«  (B.). 

Adverbial  Genitive. 

187.  It  expresses  place,  time,  manner,  and  other  adverbial 
relations. 

Ex.:  Place:  linfer  ^anh,  red)ter  ^anb,  atter  Drtem  "everywhere."     3^ 
mij(^te  (it  is  not  likely  that  .  .  .)  biefei?  SBege^  foMIb  nid)t  wieber  fomnten  (Le.). 
Time  :  biefer  Za^t,  be^  5lbeiib^,  M^  SDlorgen^  in  ber  ^^rii^e." 
Manner:   trotfnen  i^u^e^,  dry-shod;   fle^enben  %u^q^,  immediately;  "atx^ 
nunftiger  SBeife,  reasonably.     (Sie  fanien  un^erric^teter  ©ac^e  prud,  they  re- 
turned without  having  accomplished  their  object. 


68  SYKTAX   OF  THE   CASES— DATIVE.  [188- 

A  large  number  of  these  genitives  have  passed  into  adverbs,  e.  g.,  flug^, 
For  genitive  after  Prepositions,  see  302. 

Genitive  in  Exclamations. 

188.  Interjections  are  followed  by  a  genitive  only  when  it 
denotes  the  cause  or  occasion  of  the  exclamation.  2Bol)l  and 
)t)el)(e)  have  often  a  dative  of  the  person  and  a  genitive  of  cause 
or  origin :  D  te^  ^ranjofen,  ter  feinm  3Serftanb,  ttefeS  gu  iikrlegen, 
feitt  ^erg  tiefe^  au  fii^len  ge^^abt  l)at  (Le.).  D  beg  ^tucfUcben,  bent  eg 
ijergonnt  ift,  e  i  n  e  Suft  mit  eudj  ju  atmen  (Sch.). 

Dative. 

189.  It  is  the  case  of  the  indirect  object,  less  remote  than 
the  genitive.  The  nearer  object  can  also  stand  in  the  dative, 
but  is  more  remote  than  the  nearer  object  (the  direct  one)  in 
the  accusative. 

190.  The  dative  stands  as  nearer  object  after  intransitive 
verbs  denoting :  1,  approach  and  removal,  similarity  and  dis- 
similarity; 2,  pleasure  and  displeasure;  3,  advantage  and  dis- 
advantage; 4,  command  and  obedience;  5,  yielding  and  re- 
sistance ;  6,  belonging  to,  agreement,  trust,  etc.  A  large 
number  of  these  verbs  are  compounds,  viz.,  those  with  ent-, 
!oer-,  ab-,  an-,  auf-,  Bei-,  etn-,  mig-,  nad)-,  «or-,  ijoran-,  wiber-, 
ju-,  and  those  with  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb:  leiC>  t^un,  tvot)!^ 
njoKen,  fauer  mxtm,  juftatten  fommen,  n?eig  maiden,  3U  teil  merben,  ^a^ 
SOort  reten,  "to  defend,"  etc.  1,  na^en,  nad^ge^en,  6egegnen, 
gleid^en,  al)neln,  3ufet)en,  entfprec^en,  tWen,  entgekn,  nad)ftel)en;  2, 
9efaOen,batt!en,  genugen,k^gen,  l)ultigen,  ntt^fatlen,  j(^mei(^eln,  laffen 
(to  look),  broken,  groflen,  flud)en;  3,  ^elfen,  n%n,  bienen,  betfte^en, 
frommen,  tt?e^ren,  fc^aben ;  4,  geHeten,  befe^Ien,  pren,  get)or^en,  folgen ; 
5,  mi6^m,  ttjiUfa^ren,  miberfte^en,  tvtberjlreBen,  tro^en;  6,  antmorten, 
emicbern,  ge^ijren,  eignen,  Beiftimmen,  gureben,  trauen,  glaukn,  »er^ 
trauen. 


194J  SYNTAX   OF  THE  CASES — DATIVE.  69 

Ex.  :  !I)e^  2ekn^  utigemifc^le  j^reubc  warb  feincm  (SterMi(^en  ju  teil  (Scli.). 
^trviflofe  ^rei^eit  fpric^t  ben  ©itten  ^o^n  (id.).  iDu  rebefl  t^m  ba^  Sort,  anftatt 
t()n  anjuflagen  (id.).  !Dae  ©te^en  n)irb  i^m  fauer,  It  is  hard  work  for  him  to 
stand.  1.  2)u  glcic^fl  bent  ®ei|l,  ben  bu  begreifji,  nic^t  mir  (F.  512).  ®a^  jwingfl 
bu  i^r  (ber  9tatur)  nic^t  a&  mit  ^e^&eln  unb  mit  <B^xanUn  (F.  675).  2.  ©inem 
SBirte  U^t  nlc^t^  iibler  aU  ^tno^kxht  (Le.),  Nothing  looks  worse  in  a  host  than 
curiosity.  <So  flud)^  t(^  attem,  wa^  bie  ©eele  mit  2o&  unb  ©aufetoer!  umfpannt 
(F.  1587).  !Der  Sanbijogt  groltte  bem  SeU.  3.  (©ie)  we^ret  ben  ^na6en,  she 
restrains  the  boys  (Sch.).  2)er  ^nappe  folgt  bem  Stitter.  ®ott  ^ilft  benen,  bie 
fic^  fetber  ^elfen.  4.  ©oil  ic^  gel^ordien  ienem  2)rang  ?  (F.  631).  ®u  folgfl  mir 
boc^  klb  nad^  (Sch.).  ©eprjl  bu  bir  ?  (id.).  5.  Unb  bie  ©ebilbe  ber  ^Jac^t  wetc^en 
bem  tagenben  Sic^t  (id.).  SlBo^l  tt)ei§t  bu,  ba§  ic^  beinem  Born  nic^t  tro^e  (id.).  6. 
2;raue,  f(^aue  ivem.  iffiem  eignet  ®ott  (Le.),  To  whom  does  God  belong,  = 
Who  possesses  him  exclusively?  Compound  verbs:  3d)  l)ak  bir  m(^t 
nac^getleat  (F.  1426).  ©c^r  gem  j^e^t  ^arloe  \)im  spJini'jler  nad)  (Sch.).  !Die 
^onigin  \a^  bem  ^ampfe  ju  (id.). 

191.  After  transitive  verbs  the  indirect  object  stands  in 
the  dative  and  the  direct  in  the  accusative  (see  198) :  35er^u(Ie 
mir  la^  ivogentc  ©etrange  (F.  61).  Da^  5!}lenf(^enrc(^t,  ^a^  il)m 
^Jlatux  ijergonnt  (F.  136). 

192.  A  dative  still  farther  removed  from  the  verb  is  the 
ethical  dative,  or  dative  of  interest  (on  the  part  of  the  speaker 
or  hearer).     It  is  generally  a  personal  pronoun. 

Ex.:  ®et)t  mir,  ntd^t^  wetter  bavon  (Sch.),  "Go,  I  tell  you,  no  more  of 
that."  9)lir  ^u  ^kU,  for  love  of  me.  S^m  ju  ®^ren.  (©ie)  ftnb  bir  gar 
locfere,  leid^te  ©efetten  (Sch.).    2)ie  U^r  fd^lcigt  feinem  ®Iil(flid)en  (id.). 

193.  After  impersonal  verbs:  e^  a'^nt,  belteBt,  efelt,  ^t^,  fcMt, 
ge6rtd)t,  e^  graut,  graufet,  geltngt,  liegt  (mir)  an  ^trt>a^,  !ommt  (mir  auf 
etma^)  ait,  fd}autert,  fd^mitttelt,  traiimt,  ^iemt,  and  many  verbs  in 
190  can  be  counted  here  :  l^em  3Sater  graufet^^  (G.).  Sv5  Hegt 
mir  i)iet  barait,  I  care  much  for  it.  X)em  ^aifer  tvarb'^  fawcr  in 
^i^'  imb  in  ^alte  (Bii.). 

Dative  after  Adjectives. 

194.  These  have  meanings  similar  to  the  verbs  in  190, 
e.  g.^  angenet)m,  a()nU(^,  eigen,  feinb,  folgfam,  tienftbar,  gnattg,  ()olt>, 


70  sy:n^tax  of  the  cases — dative.  [195- 

nad)teilig,  »er6unten,  gutragtic^,  Ex.:  Da^  ftel)t  i^m  dl)n(ic^,  = 
that's  like  him.  ^uc^  tvar  fcer  ^nfang  il)ren  ^Biinf^en  ^otc  (Sch.). 
2)ie  metften  ftnt)  mir  juget^an  (id.),  "devoted." 

195.  Substitution  of  preposition  +  case,  both  after  verbs 
and  adjectives. 

^iir,  ttuff  an,  gegen,  ukr  +  accusative,  mit  and  von  +  dative  may  replace 
the  dative  :  3(|  jiime  auf  bic^,  i^  gtauk  an  bi(^,  yertraue  auf  i^n;  Mn  freunblid) 
gegen  bie  Strmen.    2)er  5lnjug  (suit)  ifl  fe^r  paffenb  fur  bid),  etc. 

196.  Verbs  with  unsettled  constructions. 

With  a  number  of  verbs  usage  is  either  unsettled  or  the  classics  still 
show  two  cases,  while  the  spoken  language  has  settled  upon  one,  e.  g., 
now  only  e*^  baud)t  mir,  but  e^  biinft  niic^,  classics  have  D.  or  A.  after  either. 
®laukn  with  D.  only,  or  an  +  A.;  but  F.  3438:  3d)  glaub'  \^\\  (®ott)  nid)t. 
(£(3  efcit  mir  and  mic^.  3)kn  beja'^lt  ben  ^ned)t  (person),  ba(3  S3rot  (thing),  bem 
SBader  ba^  23rot.    3(^  rufe  bir,  I  call  out  to  you  ;  id)  rufe  bic^,  I  call  you,  etc. 

197.  The  few  reflexive  verbs  after  which  the  reflexive  j)ro- 
noun  stands  in  the  dative  are  really  transitive  verbs,  and  the 
pronoun  is  the  indirect  object:  Sr  Billet  ft(^  etmaS  dn,  "  he  imag- 
ines something,"  "is  conceited."  3d^  tarf  mir  fc^meid^eln  (Le.); 
but  see  190,  sub  2:  3(^  tenfe  mir  t)ie  (Sac^e  fo. 

Accusative. 

198.  The  accusative  is  the  case  of  the  direct  object  after 
transitive  verbs,  including  many  inseparable  compounds  of 
intransitive  verbs  with  6e-,  ent-,  er-,  ux-,  itx-,  t)itrc^-,  l)inter-, 
liber-,  itnter-,  urn-  iJoU-,  mieCer- ;  such  as  Befa^ren,  kfolgen,  h^ 
feuc^ten,  ent!raften,  entfd^eibett,  erfa^ren,  erftnten,  ^erlac^en,  »crtreikn, 
gerftreuen,  turc^fe'geln,  Mnterge'^en,  ukrfe'^en,  umge'ben,  ^oUbri'ngen, 
ttjieber^o'len. 

Ex.:  3^r  fe^t  etncn  5)?attn  Wtc  anbere  me^r  (F.  1874).  S^erac^te  nur  SJcrnunft 
unb  SBiffenfc^aft  (F.  1851).  S)ie  9fiiikn  tiaben  mid)  »ertriekn  (Folk-song).  Soof 
^at  bie  2BeU  umfegelt.    S3.  3;a^Ior  ^at  ben  %m^  iiberfe^t. 

199.  Two  accusatives  may  stand,  one  of  the  person  and 
one  of  the  thing,  after  verbs  meaning  to  ask  for,  to  inquire, 


201]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  CASES— ACCUSATIVE.  U 

teach,  to  cause  to  do  a  thing  or  have  a  thing  done,  and  simi- 
lar ones,  e.g.,  fragen,  le^ren,  laffen,  Httcn,  Ex.:  2Ber  le^rte  M(^ 
btefc  gemaltigen  SGorte  ?  (Le.)  Sel)re  mid)  t^un  nad)  kinem  Bo^(^ 
gefatlen  (B.)  (t^un  =  second  ace).  SoUen  @ie  ben  Strjt  nid)t 
fommen  lajfen  ? 

1.  After  fragen,  Mtten,  itkrreben,  bereben,  the  two  accusatives  stand,  as  a 
rule,  only  when  the  accusative  of  the  thing  is  a  neuter  pronoun,  e.  g.,  id) 
bitte,  frage  bic^  etwa^,  nic^t^,  »icU  If  the  pronoun  is  lacking,  then  fragen 
m&j  +  D.,  Mtten  urn  +  A.,  itkneben  »on  or  ju  +  D.  or  the  G,  without  prep- 
osition is  the  prevailing  construction  :  ^aft  bu  m^  i|m  gefragt  ?  3c|  ^afee  i^n 
barum  gebeten. 

:8u9en  flrafen,  SSunber  ne^men  govern  an  A.  of  the  person  :  X)a^  nimmt 
mic^  Sffiunber,  "  I  wonder  at  that." 

2.  But  these  pronouns,  ba6,  nid)t3,  Biel,  stand  for  old  genitives  which  were  felt  as 
accusatives.  The  construction  was  :  SBunber  nimmt  mi(^  beS  or  te^fcit,  wonder  seizes 
me  on  that  account.  (See  186.)  Sugen  is  probably  a  G.  of  cause  :  3emanb  wegen  bet 
Sugen  ftrafen.    Semen  for  te^ren,  though  found  in  Goethe,  is  wrong. 

200.  Notice  a  choice  of  construction  in  certain  cases,  when 
the  personal  object  is  further  defined  by  another  case  or  prep- 
osition and  case.  The  verbs  that  concern  us  here  are  such  as 
[(^lagert,  treffen,  treten,  ftedjen,  and  similar  ones. 

1.  Dative  of  the  person  and  accusative  of  the  affected  part: 
3(^  maf^e  mir  tie  ^dnte  or  meitte  ipattte* 

2.  Dative  of  the  person  and  preposition  +  A. :  3c^  trete  i^m 
m  ten  %\x%  fc^lage  i^m  xxC^  ^efti^t. 

3.  Accusative  of  the  person  and  preposition  +  A. :  553tr  fc^tai^en 
ben  ^einD  anfiJ  ^aupt.  SGir  treten  tie  ©flange  auf  ben  ^opf.  The 
choice  is  between  2  and  3.  But  2  is  preferable  after  intran- 
sitive verbs;  3  after  transitives. 

201.  These  accusatives  are  both  object-accusatives,  but 
after  verbs  meaning  to  name,  scold,  regarding,  and  others  of 
similar  meaning,  the  second  accusative  is  a  predicate  or  facti- 
tive accusative,  while  the  first  is  direct  object,  e,  g.,  after  nennen, 
fd^elten,  fc^im^fen,  gtanben,  taufen,  '^eigen  (trans.). 


72  SYNTAX   OF  THE   CASES — ACCUSATIVE.  [202- 

Ex. :  3n  tiefiler  (Seek  f(^merjt  mic^  ber  ©jjott  ber  ^remblinge,  bie  un^  ben 
93auernabel  [d)elten,  "  who  call  us  by  the  nickname  of  '  peasant  nobility  '  " 
(Sch.).  2)ie  3;reue  .  .  .  ift  jebem  SSJlenfc^en  mt  ber  ixMiiH  SSIutfifreunb,  al&  il)ren 
dtdd)tv  fii^lt  er  fic^  geboren  (id.),  ^o^  fit^le  i^)  mic^  benfelben,  ber  i^  iDvir  (id.). 
3^  ac^te  i^n  aU  einen  (S^renmann. 

202.  1.  After  laffen  +  fetn  and  werben  a  predicate  A.  by  attraction  is 
found  instead  of  tlie  predicate  nominative,  but  the  latter  is  the  prefera- 
ble construction,  e.  g.,  Sa§  ba^  33ii(^lein  beinen  ^reunb  fein  (G.).  Sap  biefe  ^alle 
\dh\i  ))tn  ©c^auplot}  luerbcn  (Sch.).    Fiasco  V.  12.    W\6)  lafjt  ^tn  erften  jein. 

2.  For  the  passive  construction,  see  179,  2.  The  verbs  in  199,  1, 
may  retain  the  accusative  (pronoun),  also  le^ren.  This  would  also  admit 
an  accusative  predicate  noun  in  the  passive :  2)a^  (Sc^Itmmfte,  ix»a^  un^ 
njiberfoi^rt,  ba^  werben  ir>ir  »om  S^ag  gele^irt  (G.).  3c^  tx>erbe  ben  %mi  gele^rt. 
But  it  is  best  to  avoid  all  these  predicate  accusatives.  They  sound 
pedantic.  Better  say :  3(^  ^abe  2:anjunterri(^t,  Xan^flunbe.  3c^  werbe  imnter 
wieber  barnac^  gefragt,  barum  gekten. 

203.  The  inner  or  nearer  object  stands  in  the  accusative 
called  the  "  cognate. "  The  noun  has  the  same  meaning  as 
the  verb.  Its  idea  is  generally  included  in  the  verb  :  (Sinen 
guten  ^ampf  ^be  id)  gelampft  (B.).  (Sine  ©i^lac^t  Wagen,  t^etfe 
2;^rdttett  weinen,  etc. ;  Garten  fpielen,  ®d)littf(^u^  laufen*  ®ar  fd^one 
©piele  fpieP  id)  mit  tir  (G.). 

204.  Notice  that  the  noun  is  sometimes  replaced  by  an  indefinite 
pronoun,  voo^i,  t^,  dn^,  etc.  Compare  Eng.  "  to  lord  it,"  the  unclassical 
"to  come  it  over  somebody."  5lkr  bie  (£iferfu(^t  uBer  ©panien  gettiann  ea 
bie^ntal  u6er  biefe  polittf(^e  (St)m'pat'^ie  (Sch.).  ©{e  ®otter  l^alten  e(3  mit  ben  Za'pUr^ 
fien  (id.) ;  jt(^  wa^  rec^te^  (predate)  laufen,  fpringen,  tanjen,  "to  run,  etc.,  a  great 
deal."  Sitgen  ©ie  nitr  etne^  auf  etgene  0le(^nun9  ijor  (Le.).  Sd)  fc^wa^e  etn^  ntit 
(Le.).     See  also  F.  3416. 

205.  After  many  impersonal  verbs  and  some  other  verbs 
the  logical  subject  stands  in  the  accusative  (see  186).  The 
verbs  denote  states  of  the  body  and  mind  :  e^  tiirftet,  ()uttgert, 
f^ldfert,  mutt^ert,  txMt,  ttertriegt  mic^. 

Here  belong  also  e^  qxU,  e^  ^at,  e^  fe^t,  e^  gilt :  ^Dergleic^en  <Stimmen  c^iWi 
(Sch.),  "  There  are  such  voices."    (£^  l^at  ©efa^r^luenn  n^ir  ntd)t  get^en,  "  There 


2081  SYNTAX  OF  THE   CASES — ACCUSATIVE.  73 

is  danger  .  .  .  ".   d^  [e|t  ^tek,  ^oinbel,  ©c^tcige,  There  is  a  fight,  a  quarrel 
going  on,  somebody  is  being  whipped.     Comp.  French  il  y  a.  See 236,4. 

206.  After  reflexive  verbs  the  pronoun  generally  stands  in 
the  accusative  :  Sntfd^tie^e  tid).  definite  ti(^  wo  Ju  Mft  (Sch.). 
But  see  185  and  197. 

Adverbial  Accusative. 

207.  It  denotes  measure  (amount),  time,  and  place. 

1.  It  denotes  measure  after  verbs  like  miegcn,  foften,  gelten ; 
after  adjectives  like  lang,  keit,  ^0(^,  a(t,  tvert,  etc. 

Ex. :  2)ie  ^u^e  beine^  ^reunbe^  gUt  e«,  "  is  at  stake  "  (Sch.).  !Dte  ttjlc 
tvtegt  brei  ^ilogramm,  ^ei  Bentner,  fiinf  Sot,  etc.  2){e  S3ruc!e  ift  me^rere  3;aufenb 
^u§  lang,  ^unbert  fcc^jtg  ^oc^  unb  ad)tjig  Su§  keit.  2)a^  2)orf  Itegt  eine  ©tunbe  (an 
hour's  walk)  ijott  ber  (Stabt.     ^^riebric^  ijl  einen  ^alben  to^jf  grower  al^  3)letrid). 

The  usage  as  to  the  case  of  the  person  with  wfoften"  is  unsettled  :  S)er 
'B^txi  fofiet  mi(^  or  mtr  »iel  ®elb.     Grimm's  Dictionary  favors  the  A. 

2.  It  stands  with  verbs  of  motion  to  express  the  distance 
and  the  way,  the  noun  being  often  followed  by  an  adverb. 

Ex. :  SBeid^e  fetnen  (S(|ritt  juritcf.  Bwet  SBanberer  fie'^t  er  bie  ©trape  jiefin 
(Sch.).  (£^  i\t^  ein  |)aufe  ba^  ob're  X^al  ^erab  (Uh.).  I^er  ^el^  roEte  ben  Serg 
^inab.    ?i)lit  letfen  ©c^rttten  f(^ltd)  er  fetnen  bofen  Seg  (Sch.). 

The  A.  of  measure  and  distance  supplanted  the  G.  of  an  older  period  ; 
that  denoting  the  way  is  old.     The  G.  still  occurs  frequently.     See  181. 

208.  The  accusative  of  time  denotes  the  duration  and  the 
moment  of  an  action.  The  former  is  often  followed  by  an 
adverb,  lang,  burd),  iiber*  Ex. :  X)er  33ote  fann  ben  5KugenbIt(f  ^ier 
fcin  (Sch.).  @r  fc^laft  ben  ganjen  SJJorgen.  ^u  W^  e^  3a^te  lang 
becad^t. 

1.  Compare  the  G.  of  time  (see  187),  which  denotes  a  repetition  of  the 
action  or  a  custom.  The  A.  denotes  a  definite  point  of  time  or  fixed 
period:  (®er)ae§  SSetftnnb'  ^alten  beS  ^orgen^  gIet^(Sch.).  ©onnaknb^  ^<x^-- 
mittag^  ^a&en  wtr  feine  ©d)ule  (=  custom).  9?ac^flen  ?!Ktttn)oc^  ^aben  iwir  feine 
©d)ule.  9?o^  biefe  9?ad)t  ntup  er  ^Diabrib  tierlaffen  (Sch.).  The  G.  denoting 
duration  of  time  is  rarer  now  :  (Sin  ®ift  ba^  neun  Qftnjer  Sa^re  bauert  (Le.). 
This  may  be  partitive  G. 


74  SYN^TAX   OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  [209- 

Absolute  Accusative. 

209.  This  is  generally  accompanied  by  an  adverbial  phrase, 
and  denotes  that  with  which  the  subject  is  provided.  Ex. :  3^ 
3)ion^^,  bent  Z^xamm,  fdjitd)  Wm^,  Den  X)oI(^  tm  ^emanbe  (Sch.). 
(Sd^ott  ten  ^aU  entblbgt,  fniet'  ic^  auf  nteinem  Mantel  (Le.). 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   ADJECTIVE. 

210.  The  adjective  may  be  used  attributively,  predica- 
tively,  and  substantively:  Uv  reic^e  9lac^Bar;  ber  5^a(^t)ar  ift  rci(^; 
tier  9ieict?e. 

Attributive  Use  of  the  Adjective. 

211.  Some  adjectives  are  only  or  mostly  used  attributively, 
as  :  1,  the  superlatives  and  ordinals;  2,  certain  adjectives  de- 
rived from  adverbs:  ^iefig,  bortig,  ffit^crig,  M^^erig,  e.  g.,  t)ie  l)k\u;^c 
Beitung,  but  not  bie  B^i^wncj  ift  ^iefig ;  3,  many  adjectives  in  -ifcb, 
-\x6>  -en :  novMfdj,  irMfd),  tagtic^,  anfanglii^,  tniU6>,  cjoltcn,  feiben, 
ftlkrn,  glcifern ;  4,  the  comparatives  and  superlatives  in  76,  2. 

1.  If  they  do  stand  in  the  predicate,  they  must  be  inflected,  and  the 
noun  may  be  understood,  e.  g.,  bie  Cieferung  tfl  eine  jliinblic^e,  not  jlunbli^. 

For  the  adjectives  in  -en  and  -em,  i)on  +  noun  is  substituted,  e.g.,  ein 
a3e(^er  »on  purem  ®olbe.  But  in  poetry  the  adjective  is  found:  S)er  @tu^l 
ij!  elfenBeinern  (R.). 

212.  The  attributive  adjective  is  inflected  and  agrees  with 
its  noun  in  gender,  number,  and  case  :  Wii  filler  ^oft  unb 
frtf^em  @^aum  ^at  er  mid)  njo^I  gend^ret  (Uh.).  It  may  stand 
uninflected,  however:  1.  Before  a  neuter  noun  in  N.  (and  A.) 
(very  rarely  before  a  masc.  or  fem.)  :  Wldnt  'Muittx  |at  mand) 
giilDen  ©etvanb  (G.).  (S^  ift  ein  jjubelnarrifc^  3:ier  (F.  1167).  Fre- 
quently in  certain  phrases  like  „bar  ^elb",  "  cash "  ;  „auf  gut 
mM\  Rare  :  ®rof  ^O^ac^t  unb  M  Stfl  (Lu.).  I^a^  filter  ifl  ein 
^efli(^  ^ann  (G.);  „fremb  unb  frember  @tof  (F.  635.).  2.  When 
it  stands  after  the  noun,  mainly  in  poetry;  commonly  after 
coins,  weights,  and  measures:  Ter  ipauptmann  ful)rt  im  @^ilb  cln 


214]  SYNTAX  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  75 

3ftb^Ie{tt  rot  ijon  ®oI^e  unb  eitten  SBer  wilb  (Uli.).  Sttt  ®c^n?arm  »on 
©aften  gro^  unt)  flein  (Bii.).  3^^«  5u§  r^einifd),  funf  ^funt)  flamifc^. 
In  prose  also,  when  the  adjective  or  participle  has  adjuncts: 
Dort  tin  gutartige^,  geftttetc5  ipantel^yolf,  [(^ivetgent)  i)on  ten  iippigen 
griic^ten  eine^  gefegneten  gleif  e^,  tvac^fam  auf  ®cfe^e,  Die  feine  3Co^l^ 
t^ater  maren  (Sch.).  3.  Of  two  adjectives  the  first  stands  unin- 
flected  in  certain  set  phrases;  when  the  two  express  one  idea; 
in  poetry,  very  frequently  in  Schiller  :  i;;ie  grof^ergogtid^  kbifd^e 
9leciierung;  ta5  fonigUc^  preu^ifd^e  Si^tfamt,  2Ce^  tern,  ber  an  ten 
miirtig  alten  Jpau^rat  i^m  rii^rt  (Sch.).  T)m  falfd^  ijerratcrifc^en  3^at 
(id.).  „3n  bte  mit  wnt  Brette  2Celt"  (G.).  Schiller  has  „traurig 
^nftrer  Slrgmo^n" ;  „meltU(^  ettle  ypDl)eit" ;  „D  ungliidfelig  jammerijol^ 
ler  Za^" ;  „mtt  graufam  teufelifd)er  Suft/'  etc. 

1.  Sautcr,  and  generally  eltel,  both  in  the  sense  of  "pure,"  "nothing 
but,"  also  the  adj.  in  -er,  507,  2,  are  undeclined :  S)a^  ijl  lautcr  Unftrtn. 
effet  eitel  ungefauert  S3rot  (B.).    2)er  i^ijlner  2)om. 

213.  The  attributive  adjective  is  inflected  weak  after  cer- 
tain limiting  words,  viz.,  after  the  definite  article  and  pronouns 
declined  like  it;  after  ein,  !ein,  and  the  possessives,  excepting 
the  N.  sg.  of  all  genders  and  the  A.  sg.  neut.  and  fern.  Ex. : 
ter  gute  Slpfel^aum  (Uh. ) ;  m  gliidlic^en  ©tunte ;  gu  jenem  frozen 
^efte;  eine^  fdjbnen  2:age^;  an  einem  (angen  ^jle  (Uh.);  fein  griine^ 
^an^  (id.);  eine  arme  ^Sduerin  (N.  and  A.  sg.);  ein  [eitene^  ^Ieit» 
(N.  and  A.  sg.). 

214.  The  adjective  is  therefore  declined  strong,  when  not 
uninflected  (see  218)  and  when  not  preceded  by  any  of  the 
above  limiting  words,  mentioned  in  213,  e.  g.,  ^otte  ©e^nfud^t, 
fii^e^  ^offen  (Sch.).  ©tumme  fitter  toter  ©c^a^e  (Platen  ?).  Also 
after  the  uninflected  pronouns  meld?,  fo(c&,  »tel,  mentg,  me^r,  ttwa^^ 
nic^t^,  and  after  uninflected  numerals.  Ex. :  Sr  gibt  tern  treuen 
ipirtcn  ttianc^  Manfe^  ©tiid  (piece  of  money)  baijon  (Uh.).  3BeIi^ 
reic^cr  ^immel  (G.).  <Sol^  treffli^er  ^onard^  (Sch.)  (see  216,  4; 
221). 


76  SYNTAX   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE.  [215- 

215.  The  syntactical  distinction  between  strong  and  weak  inflection  of  tlie  adjec- 
tive, tliough  very  old,  is  by  no  means  clearly  drawn  even  now.  The  oldest  inflection 
of  the  adjective  is  the  so-called  "  uninflected,"  identical  with  the  strong  noun  declen- 
sion. When  the  pronominal  endings  spread  over  the  adjective  declension,  forming 
the  present  strong  adjective  declension,  the  adjective  probably  was  still  declined 
strong  even  after  a  pronoun  (ind.  article).  Of  this  there  are  traces  from  O.  H.  G.  down 
to  the  17th  century.  The  n-declension  of  the  adjective  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Ger- 
manic languages.  Having  less  distinctive  and  fewer  endings  than  the  strong,  it  is  natural 
that  the  adjective  should  be  declined  according  to  it,  when  preceded  by  a  word  which 
had  the  strong  endings.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  syntactical  distinction  and  to  the 
feeling  that  two  strong  forms  should  not  stand  side  by  side.  When  an  adjective  be- 
came a  substansive  or  was  used  as  such,  it  was  always  inflected  weak,  with  or  without 
article.  This  explains  221,  1.  In  Gothic  the  present  participle  and  the  comparatives 
were  always  inflected  weak.  In  O.  H.  G.  appear  only  a  few  strong  comparatives  and 
superlatives. 

216.  Unsettled  usage  as  to  strong  and  weak  forms. 

1*  The  strong  genitive  sg.  m.  and  n.  turned  weak  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  this  is  now  the  prevailing  form  :  n^o^t^  9)luti3"  (Bii.) ;  tlut'Qcn 
9?u^m^  (Uh.).  „2Borte  fiipen  ^auc^^"  (Sch.).  The  pronouns  always  remain 
strong,  except  jener,  jeber,  of  which  a  weak  form  is  rare,  e.  </.,  jebcn  fSolU 
(Uh.) ;  jenen  Xao,^  (Bti.).  This  weakening  is  due  to  the  feeling,  that  two 
strong  forms  should  not  stand  together.     See  215,  217. 

2.  After  personal  pronouns  the  rule  is  strictly  the  strong  form,  as  the 
pronoun  is  not  a  limiting  word.  But  as  early  as  M.  H.  G.  weak  forms 
begin  to  appear.  Usage  now  favors  :  after  tc^,  bu,  er  (in  address),  mic^, 
bi^  only  the  strong  form,  e.g.,  „bu  jlarfer  ^oni8^fo:^n"  (Uh.) ;  i^  armer  Wlann; 
after  ntir,  bir  mostly  the  strong  form  ;  after  tt)tr,  i^r  the  weak  (if  fem. 
always),  e.g.,  2Ber  nic  fetn  SBrot  mit  2;^rdnen  a§  .  »  ♦  bet  fennt  eu(^  nic^t,  i|r 
^imniUf(|en  9)?a(|te !  (G.).  In  w^egru^t  i^r,  fc^bne  'Damen !  (G.),  the  comma 
makes  a  difference.  After  Utt^  and  tu^  (A.)  strong  and  weak  are  equally 
frequent.  After  m^  and  eud^  (D.)  strong  and  weak  coincide  of  course  : 
man  foHte  eu(^  f(|Iec^te  ^erk  t)eifle(!en  (arrest)  laffen,  (£uc^  faulen  S3urf(^en  if^  je^t 
bcr  a3rotfor"6  ^o'^er  gepngt. 

3.  In  the  vocative  the  rule  now  is  strong  form  both  in  sg.  and  pi., 
e.g.,  Un^erfd)amtcr !  wennbic^  iemanb  ge^ort  ^atte  (G.).  ©u,  arnter  ®eifl  (Sh.). 
The  plural  is  still  found  weak,  but  rarely,  as  :  Sickn  ^rcunbc,  c^  ga^  t>eff\c 
3eitett  aU  bie  unfern  (Sch.). 

In  O.  H.  G.  the  weak  form  was  the  rule ;  in  M.  H.  G.,  the  strong  in 
the  sg. 

4.  After    certain  pronouns,  pronominal  adjectives,    and    indefinite 


219J  SYNTAX   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE.  77 

numerals,  sucli  as  foId)e,  tvelc^e,  ctnige,  etlic^c,  alle,  manege,  feine,  and  others, 
there  stands  in  the  N.  and  A.  pi.  very  frequently  the  strong  form  against 
the  rule,  but  rarely  in  the  G.  pi.  This  strong  form  is  the  older.  Even 
after  blefe  and  jene  strong  adjectives  may  be  found  in  the  classics.  Ex. : 
2)er  SSlumen^cinbler  ^at  feine  fc^one  9tofen  me'^r.  So  ^aft  bu  folc^e  l^alb^HxfauUt 
aSirnen  gefauft  ?  After  the  Q.  pi.  jnjcier  and  breier  the  weak  adjective  is  fre- 
quent, but  in  the  spoken  language  these  genitives  are  very  rare  :  ber 
5lnfauf  i)on  jwei  neuen  ^aufern  or  jwei  neuer  ^dufer,  and  not  jtueier  neuen  (or  -er) 
^dufer. 

217.  If  two  or  more  adjectives  hold  the  same  relation  to  the  noun, 
they  have  the  same  inflection.  If  the  second  adjective,  however,  be  more 
closely  related  to  the  noun,  forming  a  joint  idea,  then  it  usually  stands 
in  weak  form  in  G.  and  D.,  not  in  N.  and  A  It  can  often  be  formed  into 
a  compound  noun,  and  has  less  accent  than  the  first  adjective  :  (£r  traftierte 
un^  mit  fc^led)tem  roten  Seine  (=  Siotwein);  bie  f^olgen  blutiger  bitrgerlic^en  ^riege 
(=  aSitrgerfriege). 

1.  After  certain  adjectives  like  folgenbcr,  oBiger,  erwd^nter,  gebac^ter,  etc., 
the  second  adjective,  as  a  rule,  is  inflected  weak  in  all  cases :  ©enannte^ 
unumjl5pltd)e  S^rinji^Jf  oMger  anerfannte  (Sa^, 

The  Adjective  in  the  Predicate. 

218.  The  predicate  adjective  is  uninflected.  If  it  stand 
inflected  in  the  predicate,  the  noun  is  supplied  and  the  adjec- 
tive is  looted  upon  as  attributive:  ^ie  ^raft  ift  f(^)t?ac^,  allein  tie 
2uft  ift  gro§  (F.  2203).  Dein  ©ef^aft  ift  eitt  fc^iuierige^  (supply 
"one");  „t)e^  ^olisiften  So^  ift  !ein  gliicflii^e^." 

The  adjective  (or  participle)  is  also  uninflected  when  it  is 
an  appositional  or  factitive  predicate  :  2Bir  famen  gliicfU^  an* 
«nun,  fca^  ftnt)  id)  J)umm  (F.  961).    Der  ®Iauk  mac^t  felig  (B.). 

219.  Certain  adjectives  are  only  used  predicatively.  Some 
of  these  are  really  nouDs,  like  feint),  frennl),  ^eil,  fd)at)e,  not,  nii^e, 
fc^ulD.  Others,  originally  adjectives  or  past  participles,  have 
been  restricted  to  this  use,  like  ^b^aft,  ab^olD,  getroft,  anftd)tig, 
^ertnftig.  All  of  them  have  not  yet  become  full  adjectives; 
and  many,  if  with  adjective  form,  are  of  late  derivation  : 
abfpcnftig,  ab^olt),  ahvenUg,  an^ftnDig,  l)antgemeirt,     Ex.:    Cttilie 


78  SYNTAX   OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  [220- 

fonnte  tern  ^atct)cn  ni(^t  feinb  fein  (G.).  Sin  f*oner  Mam,  cine 
fc^bne  %xavLl  ift  ter  Xireftor  g(u(f(id)  genug^i^rer  l)abl)aft  ^u  mermen, 
fo  ♦  ♦  ♦  (id.).    2jie  ^ned)te  tcuxUn  l)ant)gemein, 

1.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  adjective  in  the  predicate  is  still  inflected,  though 
not  always.  In  M.  H.  G.  it  is  rarely  inflected.  In  N.  H.  G.  ijotter  and 
l^alber  are  stereotyped  strong  forms  used  for  both  numbers  and  all  gen- 
ders :  2)ie  9iac^t  i|!  ^alkr  ^in  (coll.) ;  ,M^  9?a(|t^  urn  l^alber  BwiJlf"  (student 
song).    Spotter  (S(|merjett  unb  ^ranf^eit  (B.). 

Substantive  Use  of  the  Adjective. 

220.  The  adjective  when  used  as  a  noun  is  inflected  ac- 
cording "to  the  rules  already  given  for  the  adjective  proper : 
5!}^ it  ^leinem  fangt  man  an,  mit  (Sro^em  l)ort  man  anf  (Prov.).  t^n 
©d^ivert  an  nteiner  Sinfen  (Korner).  tu  Srften  merben  Me  Se^ten 
fein  (B.).  For  gender  see  160,  3.  No  inflection  is  the  rule  in 
certain  set  phrases:  ®(eid)  unt  (S)leid)  gefellt  fid)  gem  (Prov.). 
3ung  unt)  3llt,  (3vo^  unt  ^lein,  did&i  unt  5lrm,  tjon  ^tein  an,  \)on 
3nng  anf;  also  in  the  names  of  languages  :  (Sn^lif^,  ^ranjbfifd^ ; 
mein  geliei^te^  Xentf^  (F.  1223).  2Cie  l)ei§t  t)ie^  anf  Stalieni)^  ?  Sr 
|at  'oon  .tint)  anf  ^Zorwegifc^  gefonnt.    Also  of  colors:  ©riin,  33(an. 

221.  Usage  admits  of  many  irregularities. 

1.  The  weak  form  in  the  plural  when  no  article  precedes  as  33ebtenten» 
S3eamten,  (S(^onen,  Sungen,  or  rarely  the  strong  form  in  the  singular  like 
any  feminine  noun,  invariable  in  the  sg. :  ber  <S(|one,  instead  of  ber  <Sc()o»en 
(G.  sg.).    See  215. 

3.  The  strong  or  weak  plural  after  aUe,  einige,  etUd^e,  etc. :  aUe  ®elel^rte/ 
cinise  ©efanbte. 

3.  After  toa^,  ttroa^,  iJieU  etc.,  the  weak  form  is  rare.     See  214. 

4  If  an  adjective  precede  an  adjective-substantive  and  is  inflected 
weak,  the  latter  is  of  course  weak  ;  if  the  adjective  is  inflected  strong, 
then  the  substantive  may  be  either  strong  or  weak.  The  latter  form  is 
perhaps  more  common  for  the  neuter,  the  strong  certainly  for  the  mascu- 
line nouns :  ^m,  fte  (ba^  SBeib)  ift,  o  ^olbe  <B^'mn,  jur  ©efeHigteit  gemad^t  (G.). 
2)te  armen  SJemanbten  fmb  gewo^nli^  nic^t  iviafommen.  ■^0(I)9efleIIte  SSeamte  |tnb 
entlajTen.   2)er  neue  33ebiente  ^at  ein  angene^me^  Stupere.    See  F.  II.  6842. 


223]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  79 

a.  Do  not  confound  ba(3  9f?e*t,  law — bai3  9?ec^te,  the  right  thing ;  basS  %vX, 
property  —  ba^  ®ute,  the  good  (abstract) ;  (ba^)  ©^tvarj,  black  (the  color) 
—  ba^  (S(^tt>arje  (the  bull's  eye  of  a  target),  etc. 

Syntax  of  Comparative  and  Superlative. 

222.  These  may  be  used  just  like  the  positive,  only  that 
the  superlative  is  never  used  predicatively,  i.  e.,  uninflected, 
excepting  allerliebft,  e.  g.,  tie  33Iume  ift  alterliebft*  If  it  stands  in 
the  predicate,  it  is  always  weak,  being  preceded  by  the  definite 
article:  'Diefer  53aum  ift  ter  Bod^fte  or  ticfer  Saum  ift  am  l)0(^ften. 
These  two  should  not  be  used  indiscriminately,  however,  as 
they  too  generally  are  in  the  spoken  language.  The  first  is 
the  strictly  relative  comparison;  it  can  be  strengthened  by 
aller-  e.  g.,  Ux  l)o^fte  »on  alien,  ter  a(lerl)0(^fte.  The  prepositional 
superlative  should  only  be  used  when  not  so  much  the  objects 
themselves  or  different  objects  are  to  be  compared,  but  the 
same  objects  under  different  circumstances  of  time  and  place. 
This  is  generally  the  "  absolute  '*  superlative,  expressed  by  an 
adverbial  phrase:  l^er  ©tarfe  ift  am  ma(^tigften  all e in  (Sch.), 
"  The  strong  man  is  most  powerful  standing  alone,  unimpeded 
by  the  weak."  ^ie  Spfel  finl)  auf  ter  fonnigen  @eite  te^  Gartens  am 
reifften.    511^  53oot^  9ti(^elieu  fpielte,  toax  ba^  3:|eater  am  ijollften. 

1.  The  "relative"  superlative  is  generally  preceded  by  the  definite 
article,  the  "  absolute  "  has,  as  a  rule,  ein  or  no  article.  Goethe  is  very 
fond  of  such  an  absolute  superlative  :  ©in  aflerlie^fie^  ^inb,  a  most  lovely 
child.  Die^  beutet  auf  ein  fpdtejle^  (a  very  late)  S'Jatureretgni^  (G.).  Notice 
also  :  miVi  bte  SBenigjlen  fonnen  (G.),  because  very  few  know  how;  bcr 
Sitrfl,  bie  Sltern,  bic  neueren  ^pxa^tn,  and  other  examples.  They  show 
absolute  comparison  with  the  definite  article.  The  absolute  superlative 
is  best  expressed  by  an  adverb  +  adjective  in  the  positive.  The  more 
common  adverbs  used  are  :  fe^r,  rec^t,  p(^fl,  oiuperfl,  uUxau^,  e.  g.,  cine  §oc^fl 
angene'^me  Uberrafc^ung,  ein  rec^t  bummer  Sunge. 

223.  Any  adjective  can  be  compared  by  -er,  -efl,  except 
those  that  are  never  used  attributively  (see  219)  and  a  few 
whose  form  seems  awkward,  like  !ned)tifd},  ^errifc^,  but  the  latter 


80  SYNTAX   OF  THE   NUMEBALS.  [224- 

axe  not  absolutely  excluded.     5lt(ein,  njeif  ®ott,  fte  tvar  me^r  fc^ult) 
aU  i&i  {¥.  2960). 

224.  When  two  qualities  belonging  to  the  same  object  are 
compared,  me^r,  meniger,  minDer  are  now  used,  but  the  classics 
are  still  full  of  the  comparatives  in  -er. 

According  to  Lehmann  (L.  Spraclie,  p.  206)  Lessing  uses  me^r  only 
once  :  2)iefe  Slui^rufungen  fmb  r^etorifi^er  al<5  grunbUc^  (Le.).  Present  usage: 
Der  ®efeHe  ift  weniger  ^eimtM ifc^  aU  bumm.    1)er  Solbat  if!  me|r  tapfer  aU  Hug. 

225.  Logically  the  superlative  cannot  be  used  of  two  objects,  but  it 
is  so  used  much  more  frequently  in  German  than  in  English,  e.  g.,  3tt)ei 
©ij^ne,  n)o»Dn  fie  ben  dlteflen  .  .  .  mit  einem  ^feile  erfc^op  (Le.). 

1.  For  the  conjunctions  benn,  o.U,  after  the  comparative,  see  333. 

3.  Notice  the  bold  comparative  in  H,  and  D.,  IX.  311  :  S'iun,  i|l  baS 
9)leine  meiner  aU  \moXi.  Such  forms  as  ber  2)eimgfle,  etc.,  at  the  end  of 
letters  are  rare.  Seiber  is  a  comparative  of  leib  (adj.),  which  became  a 
noun  very  early.     Dfterer  occurs  in  Lessing. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE    NUMERALS. 

226.  The  cardinals,  used  attributively,  are  mdeclinable 
now,  except  eiit,  eine,  ein.  The  G.  and  D.  of  imx  and  hei  now 
and  then  occur  still :  3^^ter  S^^^^it  ^unt  mad^t  atle  S3a^r^ett 
futtt  (Pro v.).  (Here  ^gmeier"  shows  the  case;  jwei  ^tn^tn  5)?unt 
would  not  be  clear.)     3<iW^  ^^n  ein^  H^  l)unt)ert. 

1.  To  express  the  year  the  cardinal  is  merely  added  to  „im 
3a^r(e)"  or  to  „itt/'  as  im  '^^k^xt  ad^tje^^n  ^un^ert  tin  unt  adjtgig,  or 
shorter,  in  1813*  The  cardinal  shows  the  year,  the  ordinal  the 
month :  (^ot^e  ftarb  ten  22ten  Wk^  1832.  §anno»er,  ten  (1.)  erften 
Sluguft  1881.     The  ordinals  used  only  attributively,  see  211. 

2.  The  time  is  expressed  in  various  ways.  Answering  to 
such  questions  as:  Wxt'okX  lU)r  ift  ii,  tveld^e  Z^ii  ift  c^  or  ^aBen 
tt)ir  ?  wte  ift  e«  an  ber  3eit  ?  we  say  :  ^i  ijl  ixCfifX]  sorbet,  aber  no^ 
nic^t  ein«.  (Ss  ift  ein  55iertel  t>ret  or  auf  trei,  or  cin  5SierteI  nac^  (iibcr) 
pin  (all  mean  a  quarter  past  two).    S^  ift  t>rel  ^Siertcl  brei  or  auf 


229]  SYNTAX   OE  THE   NUMEEALS.  81 

trci  or  etn  3Siertel  »or  trei,  =  a  quarter  of  thr'^.e.  S^  i(l  ^alb  ^hjolf, 
=  half  past  eleven,  on  the  same  principle  as  ^ierte^alb  (see 
229).  We  can  say:  20  ^IJ^inuten  na&i  ge^n  (past  ten),  aii^cinjtg 
»cr  set)n  (of  ten),  ^er  3ug  fd^rt  3  U^r  20  ^Hinuten  tta(^mittagg  ah. 
Sir  mlkn  um  urn  fiinf  treffen* 

227.  Used  substantively  the  cardinals  are  more  frequently 
inflected,  having  a  plural  in  -e  (see  429)  and  a  dative  in  -en^ 
(see  79):  S^  maren  i^rer  fiinf (e),  3mblf(e)* 

1.  Colloquially  this  -e  is  very  commonly  used  as  far  as  19  incl.,  even 
when  the  figure  itself  be  meant,  which  stands  in  the  feminine  singular : 

1)tcfc  3ld)t(e)  tft  nti^t  gut  gemac^t.  Diefe  9?eun(e)  jlel^t  fd)ief.  ©If  ift  bie  ©itnbe. 
Slfe  ukrfd)rettet  bie  jel)n  ©ebote  (Sch.). 

2.  ©ie  ?KiGto'n,  bie  SBiQto'n,  bie  9)Htttarbe  are  regular  nouns,  and,  unlike 
^Hubert  and  taufenbr  stand  in  the  plural  after  the  cardinals,  e.g.,  bict  TliU 
Vmmi,  but  fiinf  ^unbert,  fed)^  taufenb.  2)a<3  |)uiibert,  ta^  2;aufenb  are  common 
nouns,  pi.:  ^unberte  +  hundreds,  Siaufenbe  +  thousands:  e.g.,  gu  ^unbcr*^ 
ten,  a  hundred  at  a  time  ;  ki  ^unberttaufenben  bie  3)Ienfc5en  briicEen  (Le.). 

228.  „Seit)e"  corresponds  to  Eng.  "both "in  form  and 
use:  3ft  ^a^  ^\^^^  <Jn  Beitcit  2litgett  Hint)  ?  It  may  have  the  defi- 
nite article  before  it:  W  Beiten  ^ii^e,  "both  the  cows." 

1.  The  singular  kib-  means  "  either,"  "each  "  (of  two).  S3eibe(3  lapt 
fid)  ^oren  =  either  statement  is  reasonable  ;  ha&  Slknbma^l  unter  kiber  ®e^ 
flalt,  the  communion  in  either  form  ;  but  the  masc.  and  fern,  are  archaic. 
2)enn  ju  einem  gro^en  ^amt  9et)ort  beibc^  :  ^leimgfetten  ctU  illeintgfeiten  imb 
njid)ti9e  2)tnge  aU  twic^ttge  Singe  in  kljanbein  (Le.).  Setbe^  has  supplanted 
kibe,  heidiu  (pi.),  which  are  still  common  in  the  16th  and  17tli  centuries. 

Notice  6eibe^  —  unb  =  both  —  and.  23eibe^,  ein  loMic^er  ^onig  unb  mad^tiger 
®d)tt)in9er  ber  Sanje  (Bii.). 

229.  1.  Peculiar  are  the  compounds  of  the  ordinals  with  ^alB  following 
them  and  felb  preceding  them  :  55iert(e)^alb  (3|),  neunt(e)^al6  (8^),  meaning 
baa  ttierte  nur  ^alB  or  njeniger  etn  l^alh,  baa  neunte  nur  ^alk  Dreijeljnte^all)  %a^  = 
12  %^^  aber  baa  13te  nur  ^alk  Ags.,  Icelandic,  Danish,  and  L.  G.  have  the 
same  forms,  though  in  the  two  latter  "half"  precedes  the  ordinal.  It 
does  not  go  back  to  O.  IT.  G.  (SeU'anber  =  er(felb|l)  ber  jweite,  two  of  them ; 
felkrcije^nt,  himself  the  13th,  thirteen  of  them  (G.) ;  felbbritt,  felb^iert  gen- 
erally uninflected.    ©elbjl  jwanjigfter  (Le.).    The  cardinal  is  not  common, 


82  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PERSONAL   PRONOUN.  230- 

but  Leasing  has  „felb  funfjiger."    This  composition  is  more  common  than 
i)alh-  in  the  modern  dialects. 

2.  Notice  also  the  cardinals  in  -er,  as  in  ben  fiinfjiger  Sa^ren — either 
"from  1850-60"  or  "from  50-60  years  old."  It  is  now  classical.  This 
-er  occurs  in  the  names  of  the  unit,  ten,  etc. :  ber  ©iner,  ber  3e^ner,  etc. 
See  507,  1.    Qu  imiU  britt  also  occur  for  ju  jweien,  breien. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   PRONOUNS. 
Syntax  of  the  Personal  Pronoun. 

230.  1.  ^n,  sg.,  i^r,  pi.,  are  used  in  familiar  intercourse 
in  the  family  and  among  intimate  friends,  in  addressing  God, 
in  sermons,  in  solemn  discourses  and  in  poetry.  Ex. :  ^ennft 
tu  Dag  Sanb,  tvo  tie  Sitronen  Hii^n  ?  (G.).  Slinber,  alter  ^ater !  tu 
fannft  ben  Zciq  ber  ^rei^eit  nii^t  me^r  f  (^  a u  e  n  ;  bu  fotlft  i^n  ^  o  r  en 
(Sch. ).  (Srl)ab'ner  @eift,  bn  gaBft  mir,  gabft  mir  alles,  marum  id)  M 
(F.  3218). 

2.  @ie,  3.  p.  pi.,  is  used  everywhere  else,  even  among  rela- 
tives in  some  families;  also  when  grown  children  address  the 
parents:  S3o  woI)nen  @ie,  mnn  i^  fragen  barf? 

3.  This  peculiar  use  of  ©ie  sprang  up  early  in  the  18th  century.  It  is  due,  no  doubt, 
to  the  use  of  the  singular  6v  and  ©ie  in  address,  which  were  the  height  of  politeness  in 
the  17th  century.  (Sr  and  ©ie  are  due  to  the  use  of  §cn'  and  gvau  in  direct  address.  In 
Chamisso's  „^etcv  ©c^Iemi^t"  the  gray-coat  always  addresses  Peter  with  „bcr  §erv," 
e.g.,  „3}t£H3e  fcer  ^^err  meine  3w^i^ingti(^feit  entfcfjulbtcjeii  .  .  .  ic^  l)ahc  cine  23ittc  an  i:^n." 
§err,  grau,  3I)vc  ®naben,  Gure  ©gcellenj,  ©eine  9Kaie[tat  were  followed  by  the  "plural  of 
majesty"  (see  311,  2):  §err  ©oftor  njurben  ba  tatetf)ifiert  (P.  3524).  gur§  crfte  wotten 
©eine  aJJajcftat,  ba^  bie  ^fvme'e  o'^n'  2lut?(^u6  93o()nien  vcinme  (Sch.).  .^icvv  was  reduced 
to  mere  „ev''  as  early  as  M.  H.  G.,  e.  </.,  er  Sigfrid ;  in  the  16th  century,  „2Berter  « 
^farver."    This  form  encouraged  the  use  of  the  pronoun  cv  in  direct  address. 

4.  ^»f)v,  in  addressing  one  person,  was  early  very  respectful  and  has  maintained  itself 
in  the  drama,  except  in  comedy,  to  this  day,  and  might  be  called  the  "  stage-address," 
and  is  due  to  Eng.  and  Fr,  influence.    Sec  Schiller's  Tlaxia  ©tuavt. 

231.  The  gradation  as  to  politeness  and  etiquette  now  is  about  as 
follows  :  1.  For  princes  and  all  persons  of  high  standing,  3t)re  ©nabeit^ 
Sure  SxceUenj,  Sure  ?Waje|]at,  with  the  verb  in  the  pi.  2.  ©ie,  addressing 
one  or  more  persons,  verb  always  in  the  pi.,  e.g.,  biirftc  id)  <3ie  kgleiten? 
3.  3i)r,  pi.  of  bu,  and  3I)r  in  the  drama  addressing  one  or  more  persons, 


234]  SYl^TAX   OF  THE   PERSONAL   PRONOUN.  83 

e.g.,  ©»)at  fommt  3^r,  boc^  3^r  fommt  (Sch.).    See  F.  981,  988.    4.  (£r,  ®ic, 
addressing  one  person,  now  rare.     5.  25it,  il)r,  as  in  230,  1. 

232.  The  genitive  of  the  pronouns  of  the  1.  and  2.  persons  stands 
very  rarely  after  nouns.  Goethe  has  it  once,  ,,\\mxi.,  be^  ©copo'f^en,"  "of 
me  the  geognost,"  but  it  is  common  as  the  object  of  verbs,  after  adjec- 
tives and  numerals  :  3c^  Htt^  euc^,  ne^mt  cud)  mctncr  an  (F.  1875).  The  un- 
inflected  possessive  metn,  bein  are  by  some  interpreted  as  predicate  genitives, 
e.  g.,  ber  58cd)er  ifi  bein  (Sch.).  As  it  is  much  more  probable  that  the  posses- 
sive adjectives  were  used  as  genitives  of  the  personal  pronoun  than  mce 
versa,  this  interpretation  is  hardly  correct.     (See  441,  a.) 

233.  The  personal  pronouns  always  accompany  the  verb. 
In  the  imperative  „(Sie"  always  stands,  but  tu  and  i^r  only  for 
emphasis:  Stebet  eure  ^einte  (B.).  ^leikn  ®ie  gefdEigft.  See 
F.  1908. 

1,  In  poetry,  colloquially,  and  in  merchants'  letters  the  pronoun  is 
often  omitted :  Sin  webcr  ^raulfin;  webcr  f(^on,  fann  ungeleitet  nac^  |)aufc  t3cf)n 
(F.  2G08).  See  F.  3429.  S^r  SBertea  (viz.,  ©c^rciben)  ^m  18ten  bicfe^  (viz., 
9J?onat<?),  ^ak  empfangen.  Notice  the  set  phrases  Mtte,  I  pray  ;  banfe,  thank 
you  ;  Qcfc^tDeige  (conjunction,  "say  nothing  of"),  before  which  {(^  has  to 
be  supplied.  Sl^ut  mc^ts^,  ber  3ube  luirb  ^erbrannt  (Le.),  no  matter,  the 
Jew  ... 

2.  Colloquially  the  subject,  if  a  noun,  may  be  repeated  in  the  shape  of 
a  pronoun,  as  in  Eng. :  ber  ^ir(i)^of,  er  liegt  Wie  am  %<xo,i  (G.).     See  244,  3. 

234.  The  pronouns  of  the  third  person  have  demonstra- 
tive and  determinative  force.  (Compare  the  cognate  Latin 
is,  ea,  id.)  Hence  if  they  refer  to  lifeless  objects  or  abstract 
nouns,  they  rarely  stand  in  the  G.  and  D.  cases,  but  they  are 
supplanted  by  the  regular  demonstrative  pronouns  or,  if  gov- 
erned by  prepositions,  by  t)a(r),  ^in,  §er  +  the  preposition. 
Ex.:  I^em  Steven  feinen  ®ru^ !  3<^  tt^tO  batton  nidJt^  :^oren  (F. 
2104).  Jpabt  eud)  ijor^er  m^  prapartert  (F.  1958).  Mm  i(^  ^laiiB^ 
bu  ^Mtft  nicf)t  »iel  tatton  (viz.,  ^on  t?er  Sfleligion)  (F.  3418). 

1.  Also  e^  (A.)  is  thus  supplanted,  when  referring  to  an  individual 
object :  So  liegt  %\x\^  ?  .  .  .  2)en  finger  brauf  (not  a«f  e^)  ba^  ne^men  Wir 
(Arndt).  ^iwxC^  ®\M !  ^erj !  Sick  !  ®ott !  id)  |atK  feinen  9^amcn  bafitr  (F. 
3455-6),    ^ennjl  bu  Conbon?    a3efu(^e  baffelbe  jebenfatt^. 


84  COKCOKD  OF  PROKOUN  AND  NOUN.  [235^ 

Concord  of  Pronoun  and  Noun. 

235.  The  pronoun  of  tlie  third  person  agrees  with  the 
noun  which  it  represents  in  gender  and  number.  The  con- 
cord of  the  pronoun  with  the  natural  and  grammatical  gender 
has  been  treated,  see  165,  166;  also  the  neuter  sg.  e^  repre- 
senting a  plural  and  any  gender,  see  168. 

On  the  use  of  „e^". 

236.  1.  S^  is  the  indefinite  subject  of  impersonal  verbs 
denoting  states  of  the  weather  and  other  natural  phenomena, 
e.  g,,  e0  regnet,  i^onnert,  bli^t,  fdjneit,  l)agelt,  e^  ^at  gegla'tteift,  e^  tagt, 
eg  mintert,  e^  tunlelt,  tdmmert,  taut,  etc. 

2.  (£g  is  made  the  indefinite  subject  of  verbs,  not  really  im- 
personal :  S^  fi^Iagt  elf;  eg  6rennt,  eg  tlopft,  Hingelt,  eg  gel)t  log, 
Idutet ;  also  in  the  passive  and  reflexive :  eg  tDirts  getanjt,  gefungen, 
gefpielt ;  compare  man  tangt,  man  ruft.  Sg  gel)t,  fpielt  fid?  ()ter  gut 
=  it  is  good  walking,  playing  here.  So^in  foE  eg  nun  ge^^n 
(F.  2051). 

a.  Such  an  e^  is  used  by  poets  to  give  a  vague,  mysterious,  ghostly 
impression.  Schiller's  „%au^tx,"  Groethe's  „^d6)^iit\k'0"  and  „SlDtentanj" 
are  full  of  them :  Unb  aU  er  im  n)i(ligen  <Sd)lummer  lag,  Umo^t  e^  ft(^  unter  bem 
S3ette  (G.).  The  e^  (treated  so  far)  except  in  the  passive  and  reflexive  verb- 
forms  cannot  be  omitted  like,  for  instance,  the  expletive  „t^"  sub  3,  5. 

3.  (£g  is  made  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  verb,  when  the 
logical  subject  follows  later:  @g  gogen  trei  Burfd^e  mo^l  iikr  ten 
9l^ein  (Uh.).  Sg  fi^ritt  t^m  frifd)  ^ur  @eite  ter  Hu|ent)e  ®enog 
(Uh.).     See  F.  3490-1;  3674-77. 

The  logical  subject  cannot  be  another  pronoun,  e  g.,  ea  war  \^,  eg  tvaren 
<Ste,  as  in  Eng.  "  it  was  I,"  "  it  was  you,"  which  is  a  late  construction. 

a.  In  ballads  and  other  folk-lore  this  e§  is  not  required  and  inversion  is  still  .possi- 
ble, as  was  the  rule  in  O.  H.  G.,  without  c€  at  the  head  of  the  sentence.  For  after  all, 
e§  was  here  used  not  merely  to  denote  an  indefinite  subject,  but  to  account  for  an  inver- 
sion which  had  no  apparent  cause.  It  is  an  "  expletive  "  and  superfluous  as  soon  as 
any  other  part  of  the  sentence  stands  at  the  head  bringing  about  the  inversion.  It  is 
ofteuest  translated  by  "there."    German  tales  begin  „(5'3  war  einmal  .  .  .  ",  ''There 


237]  SYKTAX  OF  THE  REFLEXIVE   PRON^OUi?^.  85 

was  once  .  .  .  " .  Bai)  ein  ^naV  ein  Stoglein  ftct)n  (G.).  ©tettt'  ein  ^naBe  fid)  mti;  an  bte 
©eitc  (id.).  The  construction  i(^  bin  e§,  3t)r  fcib  e8,  "  you  arc  it,"  as  in  Ags.  and  as 
English-spealiing  children  still  say,  is  already  the  rule  in  O.  H,  G.  Nor  can  we  say 
in  German  ,M)  6tn  cr"  and  „©te  finb  er,"  but  id}  bin  e§,  baS  bin  i6),  bev  bin  iiS),  id;  bin 
bcrjenige,  roeli^ev  .  .  .  ,  I  am  he  who  .  .  . 

4.  Peculiar  is  the  impersonal  „e5  gieM/'  "  there  are  "  or  "  is," 
which  is  not  a  very  old  phrase,  but  rare  in  M.  H.  G. ,  in  which 
e^  with  pi.  verb  was  even  possible. 

w@(3"  is  here  the  indefinite  subject  and  has  taken  the  place  of  the  more 
definite  „ha^"  or  a  noun,  which  "gave,"  "  furnished,"  "  produced"  a  cer- 
tain thing.  Hence  „e<3  giebt"  is  always  followed  by  the;  accusative :  „i^ 
gieBt  Sdjlcigc,"  "  Somebody  is  giving  or  will  give  somebody  a  whipping." 
ei,  ba  gab^^  weftfdrf^en  ©c^infen  (Scheflfel).  «(£^  QkU"  is  not  well  followed 
by  a  noun  in  the  sg.  denoting  one  object  or  individual,  e.  g.,  (£(§  QtcH  ^ier 
einen  ^unb,  but  by  nouns  in  the  pi.,  by  abstract  and  material  nouns :  (£<3 
gtebt  feinen  3ufaII  (Sch.).    See  F.  1118. 

5.  S^  is  used  as  the  subject  of  impersonal  verbs  followed  by 
an  objective  personal  pronoun  (D.  or  A.),  denoting  states  of 
mind  and  body:  S^  biirftet  mid^,  ti  ^ungert  ii)n,  ti  reut  mic^,  e^  i|t 

If  the  objective  pronoun  or  any  other  part  of  speech  precede  the  verb, 
c^  is  not  necessary,  but  it  may  be  retained.  Ex. :  %i)  fc^tDore  eu(^  l\x,  ntir 
tfl^^  aU  tDie  ein  %xmm  (F.  2040).  2)tr  wirb  gewip  etnmal  ki  beiner  ®otta^nli(^^ 
feit  knge  (F.  2050).     mx  ifl  [(^led)t  ju  mute,  "  I  do  not  feel  well." 

6.  S^  stands  further  as  indefinite  predicate  and  as  indefinite 
object.  See  204.  3n  tiefem  @imte  fannft  W^  XQO.^tn  (F.  1611). 
See  further,  F.  2012-14  ;  2080.  @ie  meint,t)U  feift  entflo^n;  unc 
^alb  ml  ^alb  bift  tu  e^  fd)on  (F.  3331-2). 

In  the  last  illustration  and  in  similar  ones  c^,  if  translated  at  all,  may 
be  rendered  by  "so"  :  ©te  fmb  tro^l  miibe  ?  D  nein,  aber  ic^  Mn  ea  gewefen, 
=  I  was  (so). 

Syntax  of  the  Reflexive  Pronoun. 
237.     The  reflexive  pronoun  always  refers  to  the  subject: 
(£g  ift  bcr  2ol)n  ter  %mui,  W  ftc^  felbft  besmungen  (Sch.).    5)ie  ^at 
ft(^  jeglic^e^  eriaubt  (id.). 


86  SYNTAX   OF  THE   RECIPROCAL  PRONOUK.  [238- 

1.  The  dative  was  already  lost  in  0.  H.  G.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  use  of 
ftc^  as  dative  is  very  rare.  Luther's  Bible  is  still  full  of  the  dative  of  the 
personal  pronoun  for  the  reflexive,  e.  g  ,  %\t  ^eiben,  ba  fie  ba^  ®efe^  niii)t 
^aben,  fmb  (fie)  i^nen  felbj^  ein  ®efe|,  2)ie  SBei^^eit  laffet  i^r  fagen,  =  wisdom 
will  take  advice.  ®ott  fd)uf  ben  a)ienf(^en  i^m  jum  SSilbe.  Lessing  has:  SKer 
ffc^  ^mVi  unb  %aVi  i^m  felbjl  ju  lekn  nic^t  entfc^Ue^en  fann,  ber  lebet  anberer  ©!la»' 
ouf  intmer.  But  this  «tfem"  stands  also  because  there  is  already  one  ftc^.  It 
is  very  rare  in  the  classics  and  does  not  occur  in  the  spoken  language. 

2.  <Sel^j!,  felkr  strengthens  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  prevents  its  con- 
founding with  the  reciprocal.  For  examples  see  above.  But  felbfl  (felber) 
is  far  from  as  common  as  the  Eng.  self  (selves). 

Syntax  of  the  Reciprocal  Pronoun. 

238.  As  such  are  used  utt^,  end),  ftd>,  both  in  the  accusative 
and  dative  :  Unt  {\k)  nidftcn  ftc^  (D.)  px  unt)  grii^ten  fid)  (A.) 
freunblid^  im  (Spiegel  (H.  and  D.,  VII.  42).  SSenn  ftc^  tie  ^^iirften 
kfetoen,  miiffen  tie  Diener  ft(^  morben  unb  toten  (Sch.). 

Bat  if  any  ambiguity  arises,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the  unvarying 
form  einanber  or  the  inflected  einer  (ber  eine)  ben  anbern  referring  to  masc. 
nouns,  bie  eine  bte  anbere  referring  to  fem.  nouns,  bie  einen  bie  anbern  pi.  of 
both,  are  used  instead  of  them  and  even,  though  tautologically,  in  addition 
to  them.    Ex.:  unb  Itekn  un^  unter  einanber  (B.).    (5te  fpotten  ber  eine  be^  anbern. 

Syntax  of  the  Possessive  Pronouns. 

239.  The  possessive  pronoun  used  adjectively  agrees  with 
the  noun  like  any  other  adjective.  See  212.  The  uninflected 
forms  mein,  tein,  fein  stand  in  the  predicate  and  can  be  subjects 
only  when  used  as  nouns  with  or  without  the  article,  e.  g., 
^txn  unb  !Dein  ift  alle^  3anfe^  Urfprung  (Prov.). 

1.  Standing  in  the  predicate,  therefore,  it  is  right  to  say  :  ^a«  S3u(^ 
tfl  ntein>  mtm^,  ba^  nieine,  ba^  nteinige.  As  subjects  referring  to  ba^  S3uc^  : 
5Weine^,  ba<3  metnc,  ba^  meintge  if!  tjerloren,  =  mine  is  lost. 

2.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  right  possessive  be  used  when  per- 
sons are  addressed  with  <B\t,  bu,  i^r  (3^r).  S^r  refers  to  (Ste,  bein  to  b«, 
euer  (©uer)  to  t|r  (3|r),  e.g.y  ©ie  fakn  S^re  grau  SWutter  vcrloren?    SBo^tn 


242]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   POSSESSIVE   PR02SrOUNS.  87 

nnrb  bid)  bclne  35ermerfeit{)eit  norf)  fu^ren  ?    2)urc^  be^  9)?anne^  UOermut,  ben  3^r 
burd)  (£uer  23rautgemad^  jum  2:^rone  gefii^rt  (Scli.)- 

240.  Of  ter,  tie,  ba^  meine  (ter,  tie,  ta^  meini.qe),  wlien  used 
substantively,  ter,  tie  SHeine,  pi.  tie  5}?einen  (with  capital  let- 
ters), denote  persons,  viz.,  friends,  relatives,  etc. ;  ta^  5}teine 
or  ta5  SKeinige  denote  my  property,  duty,  share,  deserts. 

Ex. :  !Der  ^err  fennet  bie  ©einen  (B.).  (Sie  ^at  ba^  3^rtge  er^alten  (her 
dowry),  ^arbinal !  3(^  f)<iU  ba^  5)?eini9e  get^an.  %^m  <3ie  ba^  3^re  (Sch.). 
X)iefen  ^J^orgcn,  al<3  i^  ©ie  im  Jlreife  ber  S^rtgen  fanb  .  .  .  (id.).  "®anj  ber 
S^rige,"  «bie  ^Deinige,"  «bie  !Deine"  are  proper  letter-endings. 

241.  The  possessive  pronoun  must  be  repeated  like  the 
article  with  nouns  of  different  gender:  (Bdn  ^o^er  ®ang,  feine 
etie  (^eftatt,  feine^  ^unte^  Sac^eln,  feiner  %UQm  (3mcdt  .  .  .  (F. 
3395-8). 

242.  1.  As  fe in  and  t^r  are  both  reflexive  (referring  to  the  subject  of 
tlie  sentence)  and  non-reflexive  (referring  to  another  noun)  an  ambiguity 
may  arise,  wliich  should  be  avoided  by  using  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
instead  ;  either  beffen*  beren  always  preceding,  or  beffelkn^  beifelkn  either 
preceding  or  following  the  noun.  Ex. :  9tolanb  ritt  l^interm  23ater  ^er  nitt 
beffen  ©d)ilb  unb  Sd)tt)erte  (Uh.).  „^Ut  fetnem  ®d)ttb"  would  have  meant 
Roland's  shield.  Compare  the  following  lines  of  the  same  poem,  in 
which  i()ni  prevents  ambiguity :  9i.  ritt  ^interm  Skater  ^er  unb  trug  i{)m  [einen 
jlarfen  <Speer  jufantt  bent  fejlen  (Sc^ilbe.  Compare  %xan  9?.  9L  ging  mit  ber 
^am^^cilterin  unb  t§rer  fRii^te  na6)  bem  WaxtU,  i.  e ,  Mrs.  N.  N.'s  niece ;  but 
niit  ber  |)au^^alterin  unb  beren  ^'itc^te,  i.  e.,  the  housekeeper's  niece.  ®<3  eifre 
jeber  feiner  (the  father's)  unt)e|lod)enen,  »on  23orurteilen  freien  ^'xtU  nac^  (Le.). 

2.  The  possessive  of  the  3.  person  is  in  the  people's  language  often 
repeated  for  emphasis  after  a  genitive  of  possession  and  also  after  a 
dative  :  „3!Jleinem  25etter  fein  Oarten."  Corap.  "  John  his  mark."  This  is 
not  to  be  imitated  though  it  occur  now  and  then  in  the  classics  and  quite 
frequently  in  the  18th  century :  S(uf  ber  i^ortuna  i^rem  ©d)iff  (Sch.) ;  be^ 
3IIo  feinem  ©tu^l  (id.).  S|r  artet  me'^r  nad)  eure^  SBater^  ®etft  ala  nad)  ber 
abutter  i^rem  (id.).     See  180,  4. 

3.  The  definite  article  cannot  precede  the  attributive  possessive  pro- 
noun. 3ener,  biefer  and  such  adjectives  as  o^gebac^ter,  erwa^ntcr  seemingly 
do,  but  such  constructions  as  biefer  bein  <So^n»  obgebad^ter  mein  ©c^reiber  are 
ratber  appositional. 


88  SYNTAX   OF  THE   DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUN.  [243- 

243.  1.  By  a  license  tlie  possessives  lose  inflectional  endings  in  such 
set  phrases  as  occur  in  3(^  moc^te  brum  mein  %aa,  nic^t  Ueben  (F.  2920). 
Wlm  Settag  htnV  id)  bran  (Sch.).  ^ah^  ic^  bii^  ho6)  mein  Za^i  nic^t  gefc^en  (F. 
4440).  These  phrases  are  in  the  transition  stage  to  adverbs  and  the 
apostrophe  may  stand  or  not. 

2.  <Sm  is  in  proverbs  and  in  one  phrase  ^feiner  Beit"  =  "  in  due  time," 
"in  —  time,"  still  used  for  the  feminine  i^r,  a  remnant  of  the  earlier 
periods,  when  i^r  could  not  be  used  as  the  reflexive  possessive:  (Sein  %\)ox 
fennt  jebe  ^u^  (Prov.).  Untreue  fc^lagt  feinen  eigenen  ^errn  (Prov.).  „<Bmtx 
3eit"  is  an  adverbial  genitive,  in  which  feiner  has  become  non-reflexive 
so  that  it  apparently  stands  at  times  for  il^rer,  unfercfg,  etc.  Reflexive  : 
„5ltte^  2)in3  )»a|rt  feine  3eit"  (Hymn) ;  but  non-reflexive :  (Sie  toax  feiner  3eit 
(once)  eine  grope  ©angertn. 

Compare  the  relation  of  Eng.  "  his"  and  "  its."  The  latter  sprang 
up  in  Shakspere's  time.  "  Its"  is  the  genitive  of  *' it."  In  Sh.  "his" 
stands  frequently  where  later  ' '  its  "  is  used. 

3.  The  use  of  the  German  definite  article  where  in  Eng.  the  possessive 
is  used,  is  by  no  means  as  strict  and  as  common  in  the  spoken  language 
as  the  grammarians  would  have  us  believe.  Take  for  instance  :  SDJeln 
armer  ^opf  ift  mtr  ijerritcft.  3J?ein  armer  ©inn  if^  mir  jerftiirft  (F.,  I.  3383-6). 
©olang  tc^  mtc^  noc^  fxi\6^  auf  meinen  SBeinen  fii^Ie,  geniigt  mir  biefer  ^notenflocf 
(F.  3838-9).     See  154. 

In  the  17th  century  „\iii)"  was  used  also  for  all  persons.  "  Simplicissimus  "  is  full 
of  this  misuse. 

Syntax  of  the  Demonstrative  Pronoun. 

244.  ^  e  r,  t»  i  e,  fc  a  ^,  always  accented,  points  out  without 
reference  to  nearness  in  time  or  space.  It  is  generally  well 
translated  by  ^'that/'  also  by  "this,"  and  by  a  personal 
pronoun. 

Ex.:  ©  em  SJoIfe  ^ier  (this)  n)irb  jeber  %aQ  ein  ^efi  (F.  2162).  mtx,  tuie 
tc^  mt(!^  fe^ne  bic^  ju  fc^anen,  ^^e  ic^  'oox  b  e  m  (that)  ^tn\6^tn  (Mephistopheles) 
ein  |eimU(^  ®rauen  (F.  3480-1).  D  glitcfU^  b  e  r  (he),  ben  i^r  t»ele^rt !  F.  1981). 
t)tx  (for  her)  ^a^^  id)  bte  ^reube  ijerHttert  (Bo.).  SBe'^e  b  em,  ber  S3oItatr(en)« 
<S(i)rtften  iikr^au^t  met)!  mit  bem  [fe^jtif^en  ®eijl  liejl,  in  ttelc^em  er  einen  S^eil  ber< 
felkn  gefc^rieben  (Le.). 

1.  The  genitives  be^,  beffen,  beren  sg.  fern.,  berer  and  bercn,  pi.,  are  used 
substantively  as  follows ; 


245]  SYKTAX   OF  THE    DEMO]^STRATIVE   PROi^OUI^.  89 

a.  ^t^  is  arcliaic,  but  occurs  in  compounds  like  be^^alb,  bei^lwegen,  ber^ 
geftalt,  etc.,  e.g.,  2)ea  freut  fid)  ba^  entmenfc^te  3)aar  (Sch.).  9Btr  ftnb  ber  feine^ 
XOixXt  ba<3  t»ir  Mttcn  (Lu.),  We  are  worthy  of  none  of  those  (things),  etc. 

h.  3)effen>  beren  G.  sg.  fern,  and  G.  pi.,  are  used  when  they  have  the 
force  of  possessives  (see  242). 

c.  The  present  usage  favors  berer,  G.  pi.,  referring  to  persons  and  beren, 
beffen  referring  to  things.  But  the  classics  do  not  agree  with  this.  Gen- 
erally these  forms  are  antecedents  of  relative  pronouns.  Ex. :  3e^o  fag' 
mir  ba^  ©nbe  berer,  bie  »on  %xm  fe^rten  (G.).  ^at  ba^  ^inb  fd)on  Ba^ne?  ©^ 
%o^i  beren  »ier.  S)ort  fte|t  man  bie  ©liter  berer  (of  the  gentlemen,  lords)  »on 
SBebelo^. 

2.  The  lengthened  forms  in  -en  and  -er  sprang  up  as  early  as  the  15th  century  both 
in  the  article  and  in  the  pronoun.  Luther  has  „t)enen,"  D.  pi,,  but  the  short  genitives 
„t)e§"  and  ,,t)ev."  In  the  18th  century  they  lost  -cv  and  -en  again,  owing,  no  doubt,  to 
the  desire  of  distinguishing  between  article  and  demonstrative,  and  between  the  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  uses  of  the  latter,  Goethe  has  still  ,,unb  won  benen  SOJenjc^en  bie 
fie  6efonber8  f^afeen."  Present  usage,  however,  requires  the  short  forms  of  the  pro- 
noun, when  used  adjectively, 

.3.  Notice  the  frequent  emphatic  force  of  the  pronoun,  e.  g.,  ^Som  Sie^te,  ba§  ntit  un8 
geborcn  ift,  ton  b  e  m  ift  leiber  nie  bie  grage  (F.  1978-9). 

Di  efer,  jener, 
245.  '^\t\ix  points  out  what  is  near  in  time  and  space,  jener 
what  is  remoter.  Ijiefcr  is  "the  latter,"  jener,  "the  former." 
They  are  used  substantively  and  adjectively  :  l^iefe^  jitnge 
^rauenjimmer  ^at  ©efii^l  unb  @timnte  (Le.).  !Diefer  tvill'5  troden, 
lua^  jener  \t\x^i  begekt*  Dieg  33Iatt  :^ier  —  ^iefe^  njillft  Du  geltenD 
mad)en?  (Sch.). 

1.  2)a<3,  bie(3  like  t^,  but  less  frequently,  can  be  the  indefinite  subjects 
of  neuter  verbs.  See  236.  E.  g.,  !Da«  ijl  bie  ^Wagb  be^  S^ac^^ar^.  !Da^  ijl 
cin  weifer  Skater,  ber  fein  eigen  tinb  fennt  (Sch.).  ©ie^  if^  bie  %x\,  ntit  |)exen  um== 
jugel^n  (F.  2518).     The  verb  may  be  in  the  pi.     See  313, 

3.  ^ie^  unb  ba«,  bie^  unb  fene^  have  the  force  of  ^irgcnb  ein,"  e.g.,  SBir 
ftnb  m&ji  me|r  Beim  erflen  ®la^,  brum  benfen  wir  gem  an  biea  unb  ba^  (Song). 
Unb  er  flrecfte  al^  ^nak  bie  |)anbe  nic^t  au^  nac^  biefem  unb  jenem  (H.  and  D. 
V.  64). 

3.  S)iefer  is  strengthened  by  ^ter ;  ber,  jener  and  ba^  by  ba,  e.g.,  SWit 
bent  ba  t»erben  ©ie  nic^t  fertig  (Sch,).    3ener,  in  the  sense  of  "  the  other  "  and 


90  SYKTAX   OF  THE   DEMONSTRATIVE   PEOIS^OUK.         [246- 

"  to  come,''  „in  iener  Beit",  in  jenem  Seben.    ©^affpere^^  ©efpenjl  fommt  toxxUxdj 
flU(5  iener  SBelt  (Le.). 

246.  Wlien  not  referring  to  persons  ^ier  +  preposition 
may  take  the  place  of  tiefer,  and  ^a  +  jpreposition  the  place  of 
feer  and  jener,  e.g.,  SBer  fonft  ift  [(^ulD  taran  aiv  il)r  in  2Bien  ?  (Sch.). 
Da\jon  f^weigt  te^  Sanger^  ipbflic^leit  (?).  ^iernacb  (according  to 
this)  mu§  tie  Se^art  eine  gang  antere  gewefcn  fein* 

1.  Notice  tlie  two  strong  forms  in  Lessing's  ^Ui^  biefcsg,  feine  ©rftnbungen 
unt)  bie  ^i|lori[c()en  SS)?aterialien,  fnetet  er  benn  in  eincn  fein  langen,  fein  fd)tner  ju  faf^ 
fenbeu  Dloman  pfammen.  For  an  ha^,  toa^  .  .  .  ,  »on  bem,  txta^  ...  no 
baran  n)a!3  .  .  .,bai)onwa^  .  .  .  should  be  substituted,  though  this  is  done 
colloquially.    «2Bir  ba(|ten  baran,  toa^  bu  jel^t  anfangen  ix>iirbeft"  is  not  elegant. 

247.  T) e r-,  He-,  t a 0  j e n i g e  is  generally  used  substan- 
tively followed  by  a  relative  clause  or  a  genitive.  Used  adjec- 
tively  it  stands  for  Jer,  tie,  ta^  when  a  relative  clause  follows, 
e.  g.,  tieienigen  ^SJlenfc^en,  weld)e  .  .  .  The  best  usage  accents 
ter,  tie,  ta^.     Used  adjectively  it  has  only  medium  stress. 

Ex. :  ^Diejenigen  ber  ^nakn,  wel(^e  il)re  SlnfgaBcn  nic^t  gentai^t  fatten,  mupten 
Hcic^ft^en  (stay  after  school),    ^xz^it  bieienigen,  n?el(^e  eu^  verfolgen  (B.). 

248.  T)  e  r-,  b  i  e-,  t  a  f  f  c  ( t  e  denotes  identity.  It  refers 
to  something  known  or  mentioned.  It  is  used  equally  well 
substantively  or  adjectively.  It  can  be  strengthened  by 
„c(^en'':  '^xi  aller  3:rene  ijewenr'  \6^  cnre  (Saben;  ter  2:;urfti9e  foil  \\^ 
terfelben  erfreuen  (H.  and  D.  II.,  74-5). 

1.  2)er  ncimltc^e  also  denotes  identity,  but  is  not  written  as  one  word. 
»!I)erfelM9e"  is  rarer  than  berfelk.  3Bar  bn^  nic^t  ber  S)icnftmann  (porter),ber 
bie  5lu^tt)anberer  betrogen  ^i  ?    !S)er  namlid)e. 

3.  @eIMg  without  ber  is  rare,  e.g.,  (Selbige^  wei^  td^  gett^ip  (Heyse). 

249.  <S  e  I B,  f  e  I B  e  r,  f  e  I B  ft  distinguishes  one  object  from 
another.  It  strengthens  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns.  It 
is  made  emphatic  by  eben,  also  in  the  phrase  ein(er)  unb  terfelbe. 
@eI6er  and  felbft  do  not  differ  in  meaning,  but  in  use.    @elkr  is 


251]  SYNTAX   or  THE   IKTEKROGATIVE  PR02Sr0UK.  91 

never  made  an  adverb  as  \db\t  is.  <3el6er  always  follows  the 
word  it  qualifies,  though  it  need  not  stand  necessarily  directly 
after  it:  3^  felber  or  felbft  ^abe  il)n  gefe^en,  Ser  aweifelt,  5^at^an, 
Dag  ik  nicbt  (see  309,  2)  tie  S^rlic^Mt,  tic  ©rogmut  felber  feit  ? 
(Le.)    2Ber  antern  eine  ®rube  grabt,  fdUt  felbft  ^tnein  (Prov.). 

1.  <Selb|l  has  become  also  an  adverb  with  the  force  of  «fogar."  and  then 
stands  best  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  unaccented  :  ©elbft  cin  fo 
^immlifd^eg  ^aax  (viz.,  Psyche  and  Amor)  fanb  m6)  ber  SJerbinbung  |i(^  ungleic^ 
(G.). 

3.  Notice  the  compounds  bafelbjl,  |te(r)felb|l,  in  that  or  this  very  place  ; 
also  the  force  of  wtion  felbfi"  in  :  2)ie  ^JZii^e  ge^t  ni(^t  »on  [elbft  (of  its  own 
accord). 

For  felb  with  ordinals  see  229.  Alone  it  is  very  rare,  e.  g.,  mil  er  in 
felkm  (im  ^aW]it)  atte  urn  ftc^  yerfammelt  Ijattt  (Le.). 

250.  ©old?  means  +  "  such."  It  describes  what  is  pointed 
out.  It  is  used  adjectively  and  substantively :  ^tlfretd)e  ^acbte  I 
einen  \o\6>m  (S^eg)  jetgt  mix  an,  ten  id)  ijermag  ^u  gct)en  (Sch.).  2Bo 
njar  tie  Ukriegung,  aU  mir  ♦  .  ♦  foli^e  ^a(^t  gelegt  in  foI(^e  ipant 
(id.). 

1.  The  use  of  folcf)  for  the  personal  pronoun  or  ber-/  bie-,  baffel&e  is  not 
good  although  found  now  and  then  in  the  classics,  e.  g. ,  ^l^  fte  bie  9)100^^ 
l^utte  errei(^ten,  fanben  fte  [old)e  auf  ba^  tufttgfle  (see  300,  2)  au^gefc^miicft  (G.). 

2.  For  folc^  eitt,  fo  ein  is  a  frequent  equivalent.  It  is  more  common  in 
the  spoken  language  than  folc^  ein.  Lessing  and  Goethe  are  very  fond  of 
it,  e.g.,  ©0  ein  ^i(^ter  ijl  (5^a!fpere  unb  ©^affpere  fajl  ganj  aUein  (Le.).  3c^ 
fann  mi^  nic^t,  tuie  fo  ein  2Bort^elb,  fo  ein  Sugenbfc^ttjci^er,  an  meinem  2Bitten  war* 
men  nnb  ©ebanfen  (Sch.). 

„©o  ein"  does  not  come  from  ,,So\6)  ein,"  but  from  ein  fo  before  adjective  and  noun : 
„ettt  fo  :^o:^er  Surm"—  „fD  ein  ^o^er  %uxxa,"  then  „fD  etn  SEutm." 

Syntax  of  the  Interrogative  Pronoun. 

251.  SB  e  r,  +  "  who,"  "  which,"  and  w  a  5,  +  '*  what,"  are 
used  substantively  only:  2Ba^  fiimmcrt  e^  tie  Motrin,  ter  man  tie 
3ungen  raubt,in  tveffen  SBalte  fte  t^riiUt  (Le.).     5^un,  men  liefcen  jmei 


92      SYNTAX  OF  THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN.    [253- 

»on  eu(^  am  meiften  (id.)o    2Ca^  i(l  ber  langen  3(lebe  furjer  (Sinn  ? 
(Sch.). 

1.  Once  the  genitive  after  mx  and  was^  was  common.  2Ber  is  almost 
entirely  supplanted  by  ml^tx,  and  »a^  by  it>ao  fitr  etn»  But  toa^  +  geni- 
tive, which  generally  looks  like  an  accusative,  still  remains  in  phrases 
like  2Ba^  Sunber(a)  (Le.).  SBa^  be^  Xtn\d^,  ma^  ^enfer^.  2Ba^  x)l  3Bei^e^ 
bort  am  griinen  2Balbe  (G.).    See  181, 188. 

2.  2Bem  only  refers  to  persons.  When  it  refers  to  things  or  whole 
sentences  JX)o(r)  +  preposition  is  substituted.  SSo^u  ber  Sarm  ?  (F.  1322). 
SCoran  erfennft  bu  ben  2)ieB,    2Bor  before  a  vowel,  wo  before  a  consonant. 

3.  In  the  spoken  language  „n>a^"  is  preceded  by  a  preposition  that 
does  not  govern  the  accusative ;  ju  toa^,  mit  Was^;  but  ttjomit,  tt»o^u  are  pref- 
erable. The  classics  have  it  too.  Even  fiir  toa^,  urn  toa^,  bur(|>  tt>aig  are 
supplanted  by  iDofiir,  t»orum,  tt)oburd&*  3u  tt)a^  bie  ^^offe?  (G.)  SDlit  twag 
fann  i(^  aufrvarten  ? 

4.  2Ba^  in  the  sense  of  voaxnm  and  wie  is  originally  an  absolute  accusa- 
tive, e.  g.,  S5ai3  j^e^t  t^r  unb  lec^t  bie  ^cinbe  in  (=  in  ben)  (Sc^op  (Scb.).  2Ba(3 
wirb  ba$  |)erj  bir  fc^wer  (F.  2720). 

5.  Mark  the  interrogative  adverbs:  Wo,  +  where;  wanttf  +  when  ; 
n)te,  +  how ;  WD(r)-  with  preposition ;  wavuntr  +  wherefore,  +  why,  only 
interrogative.     For  their  etymology  see  551. 

252.  2B  e  I  (^  means  +  "  whicli "  and  singles  out  the  indi- 
vidual, though  etymologically  it  inquires  after  the  quahty. 
It  stands  adjectively  and  substantively:  Unb  lueld^er  ift^^,  ben  ^\x 
(tm  meiften  Uebft?  (Sch.).  2Ce(^e^  Unge^eure  ^xximi  \i)x  mix  an? 
(id.). 

In  exclamatory  sentences  welc^  is  originally  interrogative,  often  fol- 
lowed by  ein :  Sel^  ein  3u:&eln,  welc^  ein  ©ingen  ivirb  in  unferm  ^aufe  fein ! 
(Song).     See  F.  742. 

253.  5Bag  fitr,  tt>a^  fitr  ein  inquires  after  the  nature 
and  qualities  of  a  person  or  thing.  2Ga^  fitr  always  stands 
adjectively,  wag  fitr  ein  adjectively  and  substantively.  2Bag  is 
separable  from  fiir  ein.  Lessing  is  particularly  fond  of  this 
separation.     SSa^  fitr  stands  before  the  singular  of  a  noun 


256]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  RELATIVE   PROKOUNS.  93 

denoting  material  and  before  a  collective  noun;  before  tbe 
plural  of  any  noun.  2Ba^  fiir  ein  inquires  also  after  an  indi- 
vidual. 

Ex. :  Sa^  fiir  Sein  tfl  bte^  ?  2Ba^  fiir  33erge  ,  .  .  trenneu  un^  benn  no(^  ? 
Cu.e.).    Wa^  in  fda^lon  id)  bir  fiir  einen  fc^iinen  ©toff  gcfaitft  (id.). 

Syntax  of  the  Relative  Pronouns. 

254.  There  being  no  original  relative  pronouns,  the  other  pronouns  were  nsea  as 
Hiich  or  conjunctions  like  so,  dar,  da,  unde  (see  below)  connected  coordinate  sentences, 
one  of  which  later  became  subordinate.  The  first  pronoun  used  as  a  relative  was  bcr, 
^te,  baS,  in  O.  H.  G.  SSct^er,  wev,  waS  developed  into  relative  pronouns  gradually.  First 
Ihey  were  made  indefinite  pronouns  by  means  of  the  particle  so,  O.  H.  G.  so  hwelich{so), 
-«o  hwer(so),  so  hwas{so)  >  M.  H.  G.  swelich^  swer^  swas  =  whosoever,  whatsoever  > 
^.  H.  G.  irelc^ev,  wev,  xoai,  which  can  be  strengthened  by  nur,  auc^,  tmmer  (=  ever).  To 
oay  therefore  that,  the  interrogative  is  used  as  the  relative  is  hardly  correct,  though, no 
doubt,  the  indirect  question  had  its  influence  in  the  coincidence  of  the  forms  of  the 
interrogative  and  indefinite  relative  pronouns.  The  demonstrative  bev,  bie,  baS  intro- 
<iuced  the  coordinate  clause,  which  afterwards  became  subordinate ;  and  clause  and 
pronoun  were  then  called  relative.    SBelc^ev  is  only  of  the  16th  century. 

255.  5)  e  r  and  m  e  1  d)  e  r  are  equivalent.  After  personal 
pronouns  ter  is  preferable.  Euphony  should  decide  which  is 
to  be  used.  Sin  ^rauensimmer,  tag  unit,  ift  e6en  fo  efel  aU  ein 
^mn,  ber  ftd)  fd^minft  (Le.).  Sel(i^er  is  preferable  after  ber;= 
;enige.  The  following  sentence  is  bad :  £ie,  tie  tie  ^iJlutter  ter 
Winter  tvar,  ift  geftorkn. 

1.  Of  the  four  relatives  ber,  wel(^-,  mx,  t»a6  only  W  c  I  ^-  can  also  be 
used  adjectively,  tlie  other  three  only  substantively.  The  genitive  of 
ber,  bie,  ba^  is  always  beffert,  beren,  sg.  and  pi.,  never  berer.  Ex.:  2Ber  fein 
®efe^  ac^tet,  ifi  ekn  [o  mcic^tig  aU  mx  fein  ®efe^  ^at  (Le.)  Sim  ^JJontag,  an 
ml^tVA  Za^t  tt)ir  aheiflen   .   .  .    But  this  is  not  very  elegant. 

256.  X)cr  and  m\6^tx  will  take  any  antecedent  soever. 
But  wer,  ivag,  having  sprung  from  indefinite  and  compounded 
pronouns,  require  none.  SBer  admits  of  no  antecedent  at  all ; 
\va^  may  have  any  other  neuter  pronoun,  an  adjective  (pref- 
erably in  the  superlative),  or  a  whole  clause,  e.  g.,  ?^iir  \m^ 
trein  5el}t  unt  ni(^t  trein  (tn5  ©e^irn)  ge^t,  ein  prad^ticj  SGovt  3U 


94:  SYNTAX   OF  THE   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  [257^ 

tienften  fte^t  (F.  1952-3).  Mti  m^  ift,  tft  tterniinftig  (Hegel). 
3Ba5  t)u  erer6t  i?on  teinen  55iitern  kft,  ertvirb  e^  urn  e^  au  beft^cn  (F. 
682-3).  Xm  iperrli(^ften,  ^a^  m6:!  Der  ®eift  empfangen,  trangt 
immer  fremt)  unt>  fremter  @toff  fid)  an  (F.  634-5). 

1.  (£r,  wer;  ber  3D?ann  wer;  ber,  mx  are  impossible.  But  Goethe  has  (in 
the"  Walpurgisnacht'^),  F.  3964:  (Bo  (£()re  bem,  n)em  (£^re  geMilrt.  The 
proverb  says :  «S^rc,bem  (£|re  ge^u^rt,"  the  Bible  „(£^rc,bem  bie  d^xt  QiH^xt." 

2.  SBae  referring  to  a  substantive  and  Yotl^t^  referring  to  a  whole 
clause  are  not  present  usage,  though  the  classics  use  them  so.  1)k  5llten 
fanntcn  ba^  ^^ing  nic^t,  \va^  ttjir  ^Dtlid)felt  ncnncn  (Le.).  ^cn  friiljcr  Sugcnb  an 
^attc  mir  unb  metner  <Bd)m\ltx  ber  3}ater  fel6ft  im  2;anjen  Unterrid)t  gegekn,  welc^e^ 
einen  fo  ernft^aften  5Wajm  luunbcrlid^  genug  l)atte  fleiben  foUen  (G.). 

3.  If  mx  has  a  seeming  antecedent  the  latter  stands  after  the  clause. 
The  antecedent  is  nothing  but  the  subject  of  the  main  clause  repeated 
for  emphasis  in  the  shape  of  another  pronoun.  If,  however,  n^cr  and  its 
seeming  antecedent  do  not  stand  in  the  same  case,  the  latter  is  indis- 
pensable. Ex. :  2Ber  9)e(^  angreift  tefubdt  fid)  (Prov.).  2Ber  iiber  gciviffe  !l)htge 
ben  S^erftanb  nic^t  »erliert,  ber  :^at  feinen  ju  ^erlieren  (Le.).  2Ber  i?icle^  briu9t,tt)irb 
inand)em  etwa^  brtngen  (F.  97).  But  9Ber  e  i  n  Mai  liigt,  bem  ^laiibt  man  nic^t 
unb  mm  er  auc^  bie  SBa^r^ett  fpric^t  (Prov.).  2Ber  ha  1)at,  bem  wirb  gcgebcu  (B.). 
The  same  is  true  of  voai :  SBasS  man  nid)t  mi^,  ha^  ekn  ^raud^te  man  unb  \x>ai 
man  mi^,  fann  man  nic^t  hauc^en  (F.  1066-7).  ^^rit^  iibt  ftd),  iwa^  cin  SJJeifler 
ivcrben  Witt  (Sch).     For  the  gender  in  this  illustration  see  168. 

4.  The  old  short  form  m^  is  now  archaic  except  in  lu  e  ^  |  a  I  b,  tt)  e  ^== 

W  e  9  c  n  t  S[Be^  SBrot  id)  effe,  be^  Cieb  tc^  jtnge  (Prov.). 

257.  If  the  dative  and  accusative,  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion, do  not  refer  to  a  person,  m,  now  rarely  t)a,  with  that 
preposition,  are  generally  substituted  :  5*lid)t^  ift  3wf«U ;  am 
irenigften  ba^,  tvoijon  bie  5tbfid)t  fo  !(ar  in  Me  5tucien  leud^tet  (Le.). 

1.  <Bo,  the  oldest  relative  conjunction,  has  now  been  crowded  out  from 
the  spoken  language,  though  it  was  very  common  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries :  2)te  Unfe  ^anb,  baju  ba^  ^aupt,  fo  cr  i^m  a&gel^aucn  (Uh.).  SJon 
atten,  fo  ba  famen  (Bii.), 

258.  The  relative  adverbs  \v  o,  "  where  "  and  b  a  (colloqui- 


261]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  II^DEFimTE   PRONOUN^S.  95 

ally) ;  t)  a,  tt?  a  tt  n,  W  e  n  n,  mo,  "  when  ";  n?  i  e,  *'  as  "  take  the 
place  of  a  relative  pronoun  governed  by  a  preposition  when 
they  refer  to  nouns  denoting  time,  place,  and  manner. 

Ex. :  ^ennj^  bu  ba^  I'anb  wo  bie  Sttronen  Mii^n?  (G.).  (£^  gttt  im  ?Wenf^en* 
lekn  SfugcnWicfe,  too  er  bem  2Beltgei)l  nci^er  ift  al^  fonjl  (Scli.).  3n  blefem  Slugen^ 
blttfe,  ha  toxx  reben,  ijl  fctn  2;5)ra'nn  mel^r  in  ber  <B^miicx  Sanbe  (id.).  w'Die  3lrt 
unb  Seife  nJtc,"  "  the  manner  in  which. "  („2Bie"  is  more  forcible  than  „in 
Welc^er.")    D  fc^oncr  %aQ,  mm  enblic^  ber  ©otbat  iinS  Ce6en  !^eimfc^rt  (Sch.). 

1.  This  construction  is  old  only  with  the  demonstrative  adverbs  used 
as  relatives,  viz.,  da,  ddr,  danne.     SIIIWO/  aEba,  Jwofelbjl  are  archaic. 

Syntax  of  the  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

259.  Sin  and  einige  can  precede  a  numeral  generally  fol- 
lowed by  a  noun.  They  mean  "  some,"  "or  so,"  "odd":  ciu 
a(^t  2:age,  a  week  or  so;  einige  i?ierjtg  ^Ci\)x,  forty  odd  years. 
The  order  may  also  be:  „ein  '^^\)x  fiinfje^^n." 

1.  Grimm  thinks  this  phrase  has  lost  /,ober/'  as  if  it  meant  einen  2;a(^ 
ober  li^n,  cin  3al)r  ober  funf^e:^n.  No  doubt  ^einige  i^icrjig  3a|>r"  has  lost 
„unb''  and  stands  for  einige  unb  »ierjig  Sa^r,  forty  (and)  odd  years. 

260.  Sin,  e t  w  a ^,  m a ^,  w e r,  i c m a n b,  w e I (^ c,  e i n  i (^ e 
can  be  strengthened  by  irgent  (compounded  of  io  -f  /ii^ar  and 
gin  r:=  "ever,"  "  v/here,"  ''you  please,"  <7m  corresponding  to 
L.  -cun).  For  the  origin  of  ma^,  mx,  m\6^,  see  254.  3td),  ivenn 
\^  tixo^^i  auf  tic^  fijnnte !  "  if  I  could  influence  you  at  all  (F. 
3423).  n<\^  anber^  fnd)e  ^u  Beginncn  (F.  1383).  %k  3^9^  ift  bod) 
immer  tva^  unb  etne  %.xi  »on  ^rieg  (G.).  ipier  finb  ^irfd)en  gu  »cr^ 
faufen.  SBitlft  bu  n?elc^e?    ipaft  bu  irgenb  ma^  ijerloren? 

1 .  They  stand  generally  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative.  (Sinig 
is  rare  in  the  singular,  and  for  it  irgenb  ein  is  better  used. 

261.  '21 1  {-.  The  following  examples  show  the  many  vari- 
ous forms  of  aE-  :  all  "i^Ci^  (^etb,  aU  be^  ®i\u^,  aUe^  ba^  ®elb,  m^ 
foil  ba^  alles;  ?    Mt  fangcn,     2(Uc  ^}}?enfii)cn  miiffen  fterbeu. 


96  SYNTAX   OF  THE   INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS.  [262- 

1.  Slffe  stood  ill  M.  H.  G.  only  after  prepositions  as  still  now,  e.  g,,  ki 
atte  bem,  "  withal."  3Kir  ivirb  »on  alle  bem  fo  bumm  (F.  1946).  The  form  alle 
before  the  article  and  not  preceded  by  a  preposition,  though  very  com- 
mon in  the  classics  and  in  the  spoken  language,  is  not  so  good  as  aH  or 
att  with  strong  endings,  e.g.,  5ttt  bcr  (Sc^merj  (G.).  91II  or  allc  in  such 
pJirases  as  ber  SBein  i|l  all,  "  there  is  no  more  wine,"  has  hardly  been  satis- 
factorily explained  yet. 

2.  Notice  the  following  meanings ;  3tffe  <Stunben  einen  X'^eeloffel  ijcU,  "  a 
teaspoon  full  every  hour."  The  singular  in  the  sense  of  "every  "is 
rarer,  auf  atten  %<x%  in  every  case.  5lUcr  5lnfang  ift  fd}a^er  (Prov.).  WHzi 
2)in9  tt)af>rt  feine  ^di,  ©otteig  iBiel)  in  (Stvigfeit  (Hymn).  The  singular  in 
the  sense  of  Eng.  "  all "  is  archaic,  alien  2B inter  (Logau,  quoted  in  Grimm's 
Diet.),  all  winter.  For  all  day,  all  night,  we  say  best  bie  ganje  9lad)t,  ben 
ganjen  2;ag.    Notice  also  in  aHer  ^5ru^,  "  very  early,"  in  aller  ©tttte,  in  aHe  Selt. 

3.  The  plural  of  jeber,  iebweber,  jcglidjer  is  rare.  It  is  expressed  by  /,alle." 
Even  the  singular  of  the  last  two  is  now  archaic  and  rare. 

262.  ^  a  n  ($  e  r  does  not  differ  from  the  Eng.  "  many  "  in 
use  and  force.  Compare  etn  mandser,  mand)  etner,  mandjer  gute 
^ann,  manc^  ein  guter  SJJann,  manege  fc^one  33tumc. 

263.  35  i  e  I  and  n)  e  n  i  g,  denoting  the  individual  and  used 
substantively  denoting  persons,  must  be  inflected  ;  if  they 
denote  an  indefinite  number,  quantity,  mass,  they  are  gener- 
ally uninflected.  ttnxi  ^iele  finfc  krufen,  aber  luentge  [Inb  au^er^ 
ivd^(et  (B.).  ^iel  no^  ^aft  bu  ijon  mir  ^u  ^oren  (Sch.).  ^xoox  mei§ 
id)  oiel,  tod)  mi3d)te  \^  atle^  ivijyen  (F.  601).  S^  ftubieren  del  2lmert^ 
faner  in  Deutfc^lanb* 

1.  33ieler,  -c,  -eg  denotes  "various  sorts,"  e.g.,  ijteler  Sein;  in  composi- 
tion   5)ielerlei  SSetn,     "many  kinds  of  wine." 

A  ftiller  treatment  of  the  large  number  of  indefinite  pronouns  and  numerals  belongs 
rather  to  the  Dictionary. 


265]  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB.  97 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB. 
Classification  of  Verbs. 

264.  According  to  meaning  and  construction  the  verbs 
may  be  variously  divided  :  1,  into  independent  verbs;  2,  into 
the  small  class  of  tense  auxiliaries  and  the  modal  auxiliaries. 
See  267.  Again:  1,  into  personal  verbs,  which  can  have  any 
person,  the  1.,  2.,  or  3.,  as  subject;  2,  into  impersonal  verbs, 
which  have  the  indefinite  subject  e^,  „e5  iti^net."     See  236. 

The  personal  verbs  again  divide:  1,  into  neuter  or  subjective 
verbs,  as  tie  ©onne  fi^etnt  (see  179);  2,  transitive  or  objective 
verbs,  the  direct  object  of  which  stands  in  the  accusative 
(transitive  proper,  see  198)  or  in  the  genitive  or  dative 
(called  also  in  trans.,  see  184,  190). 

As  subdivisions  of  transitive  verbs  may  be  regarded :  1,  the 
reflexive  verbs;  2,  the  causative. 

The  reflexives  again :  1,  into  reflexives  proper,  which  occur 
only  as  reflexives,  e.g.,  ft^  gramen,  to  pine;  f{(^  erbarmen,  to  feel 
pity;  2,  into  both  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  used  re- 
flexively,  e.  g.,  ft(^  tvafd^en,  ftdj  ijereinen,  ft(^  tot  lai^en. 

The  pronoun  is  always  in  the  accusative,  but  see  197. 

1.  Transitive  verbs  have  often  intransitive  or  neuter  force,  but  there 
can  be  no  direct  object  then,  ©a^  9)ferb  jte^t  ben  SBagen,  but  T)k  SBoIfen 
Xte|en  ant  ^imniel.  Personal  verbs  can  also  be  used  without  a  logfical  sub- 
ject: S)ag  Staffer  rauf(^t,  but  ©a  raufc^t  tm  9lo|ve.  Also  the  modal  auxilia- 
ries occur  still  as  independent  verbs ;  ^a^  fott  bas?  ?  but  SBo^itt  foE  ber 
t)ui  gep^tet  feitt  ?    See  267. 

Syntax  of  the  Auxiliaries. 
I.    §  a  B  e  n  and  f  e  i  n . 

265.  ^  a  6  e  n  forms  the  compound  tenses,  active  voice : 

1.  Of  all  transitive  verbs  :  ic^  ^aBe  getragen,  i(^  ^ak  Bebedt,  i^ 
|abe  angeHagt. 


98  sy:n^tax  of  the  verb— auxiliaries.  [266^ 

2.  Of  the  modal  auxiliaries,  of  reflexive  and  impersonal 
verbs  proper,  ^r  i^at  e^  nicbt  gemot^t,  l)at  fid?  geiuafc^en,  e^  kt 
gmgnct,  e^  ^at  micb  gereut, 

3.  Of  intransitive  verbs  which  have  no  direct  object,  at  most 
the  object  in  the  G.  or  D.  @r  ^ttc  mein  gefpottet,  cr  I)at  mir 
gefdjaDet,  er  Ijattc  gelai^t,  geiveint,  gejWafen* 

4.  Of  (intransitive)  verbs  of  motion  when  the  mere  action 
within  a  certain  space,  the  effort,  and  its  extent  are  to  be 
emphasized,  without  reference  to  direction,  point  of  depar- 
ture or  destination.  %.  yon  ipumBoltt  l^at  i?iel  gereift,  =  was  a 
great  traveler.  Xer  ©tallfned)!  Ijat  eine  ©tunte  ^in  unt  ^er  gerittcn. 
Sr  ^tte  in  S3ten  3el)n  3^^1*0  gefat)ren  (Le.).  ^aS  Sammc^cn  l)at 
gel)upft,  t)er  gifc^  l)at  gcfd^wommcn.  Xa^  ^leine  (the  httle  one)  i)at 
no(^  nie  gegaitgcn  (has  never  walked).  (So|jl)ie  l)at  geflettert  unt> 
fi^  Die  ©d)iirge  gcrriffen.  X;er  ©c^nelllaufer  ^at  fdjon  langft  gclaufcn 
(finished  running  long  ago).  Good  usage  favors:  'Die  Ut)r  Ijat 
ciiimal  gegangen,  ahx  je^t  ftel)t  fie  ftid.  Tie  SHiible,  Ue  9)^afd)ine,  ta^ 
Stat)  l)at  gegangen,  but  ift  is  frequently  used. 

5.  Of  fi^cn,  fte^en,  liegen,  anfangen,  beginnen,  anf^bren.  But  in 
S.  G.  fein  is  more  common  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  classics. 
3Bo  l)aU  i^r  gefeffen,  geftanten  ?    SSann  ijat  Die  (Sd)nle  angefangen  ? 

266.     @  ein  forms  the  compound  tenses: 

1.  Of  all  verbs  of  motion,  except  some,  which  take  ^kn, 
when  action  simply  is  denoted.  See  265,  4.  These  take  fein 
when  the  direction,  points  of  departure,  destination  and  ar- 
rival are  mentioned.  These  circumstances  are  often  expressed 
by  inseparable  and  separable  prefixes  in  compound  verbs. 
Ex.  :  „1)er  ^ai  ift  gefommen."  (£r  wivo  gefatlen  fein,  =  he  proba- 
bly fell.  2Bir  fmD  fd)nc(I  ^inabgeftiegen*  Die  (5eefal)rer  pnt)  auf  fcer 
3nfel  8!i^e  getantet.  Die  ©torc^e  fmb  nad)  ©iiten  ge^ogen.  Der 
@ta(I!nec^t  ift  in  einer  ©tnnbe  ^in  unD  ^er  geritten,  =  he  rode  to  a 
certain  place  (there)  and  back.  Die  geinDe  fint  entflo^en,  cnt^ 
laufen,  eingetroffen.    Sir  finD  fd)on  mel)rerc  SJiate  nmgcgogen  (moved). 


267]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB— AUXILIAKIES.  99 

2.  Of  certain  verbs  denoting  a  springing  into  being  or  pass- 
ing away,  a  transition  and  development,  growth  and  decay, 
often  expressed  by  er-,  ijcr-,  jer-,  and  separable  prefixes.  'Lu 
Wild)  ift  gefroren  (<  gefrieren,  but  e^  bat  gefroren  <  frieren,  there 
was  a  frost).  Da^  <Bni  ift  gerriffen,  2^er  @d)nee  ift  gcfct)mol3en. 
„Vcv  33rut>er  ware  nid)t  geftorkn."  X;a^  Saumd}cn  ift  geitjad)fen»  Xic 
reid)en  Seute  fint)  im  ^riege  ijerarmt,  2^a5  Sidjt  ift  erlof^en.  I^ie 
©c^ale  ift  gcfpruttgen  (cracked).  Ter  Sekling  tuar  eingefd)lafen  (had 
fallen  asleep).  In  the  compound  verbs  it  is  just  this  prefix 
that  called  for  fein*  Compare  trinlen  —  ertrinfen,  f(^eitteu  —  er;; 
f(^einen,  ma(^en  —  ernjad^en,  ^uttgern  —  ^erl)ungern,  frieren  —  erfrieren, 

3.  Of  fein,  bleiben,  begegnen,  folgen,  gelingen,  gefd?e^en,  gliiden,  for 
which  it  is  hard  to  account  by  meaning,  but  see  283,  2.     Ex.: 

S^  ift  i^m  nidt  gelungen,  gegtiidt*    T)a^  ift  fdon  alleg  tagewcfen. 
Sin  filler  2:roft  ifl  it)m  gebliebcn  (Sch.). 

4.  §aljen  has  gained  upon  feiii  in  German,  but  not  so  much  as  English  "  to  have  "  upon 
"  to  be."  gcLjen  and  tcgcgncn  were  once  genei-ally  compounded  with  ^atcn.  Also  the  ten- 
dency to  use  intransitive  verbs  as  transitives,  so  strong  in  Eng.,  has  increased  in  Ger- 
man. While  in  Eng.  one  can  "  run  "  a  locomotive,  a  sewing  machine,  a  train,  a  ship, 
in  German  fii:^ren,  leiten,  in  ®ang  tringen,  get>raucl)cn,  or  the  verb  of  motion  +  lajfcu  or 
tnac^en,  will  have  to  be  used.  ®er  ^utf^er  f)at  un§  fd^neQ  getal^rcn.  ®er  ipoftittion  Ijat  ben 
SBagen  worgefa^ren.    90?an  lonnte  tie  geuer^prii^e  ni(^t  in  ®ang  bringen. 

5.  The  difllculty  as  to  the  use  of  i)aiin  and  fein  lies  after  all  mainly  in  the  way  in 
which  a  verb  is  used,  transitively  or  intransitively,  and  in  the  meaning.  Tlie  student 
should  attend  particularly  to  these  points  and  not  be  too  timid,  as  in  many  cases  usage 
is  by  no  means  settled. 

As  to  the  omission  of  I^aBen  and  fein  in  dependent  clauses,  see  346. 

II.     Special  Uses  of  the  Modal  Auxiliakies. 

This  subject  belongs  really  rather  to  the  Dictionary,  but  the  appreciation  and  trans^ 
lation  of  these  verbs  is  so  difficult  that  a  brief  treatment  of  them  is  given  here. 

4 

267.  1.  ^  5  n  n  e  n  denotes  ability  :  2)er  %x\^  farm  fd)t»tmmen.  ^ier  |lc^^ 
t(^,  tc^  Um  nic^t  anber^  (Lu.).  Possibility  :  3^r  tonntet  i^r  2Berfjieug  fcin,  mi(| 
in  ba§  (^axn  gu  siet)en  (Sch.).  Knowledge,  "to  know  how,"  its  oldest  mean- 
ing: ^annfl  bu  Stdic'mfc^?  Compare  fijnnen^  **to  have  learnt,"  then  "to 
be  able  "  ;  fenncn  (<  kanjan,  causative  of  !atnt — fonnen)/  "to  be  acquainted 
with"  ;  wiffen,  "to  know." 

2.  ®  u  r  f  e  n  denotes  :  1.  Permission  and  authorization  :  2)u  barffl  au(| 


100        SYNTAX   OF  THE  VEKB — MODAL  AUXILIARIES.        [267- 

ha  nur  fret  erfci^etnen  (F.  336).  D^ne  Sagbf^ein  barf  nicmanb  auf  bic  Sa'gb  ge'^n, 
2.  "  To  have  occasion  to,"  "  reason  for,"  **  need  "  :  ?Wan  barf  ben  @d)luffel 
nur  jwei  ?Wal  umbre^en  unb  ber  9licgel  fpringt  prucf,  "You  need  ..."  ®u 
barfjl  ^tnau^ge'^en/  bie  Suft  ijl  ^ter  fe^r  felled)!,  "  You  have  good  reason  to  go 
out  ..."  This  force  is  the  oldest,  but  rather  rare  now.  3.  "  To  trust 
one's  self  to"  :  2Ber  barf  i|n  nennen  unb  i»er  kfennent  3c^  glaut  il)n  (®ott)  (F. 
3433-5).  This  force  has  sprung  from  1  and  2  and  from  the  verb  tar  — 
tiirren  +  dare,  whose  meaning  was  embodied  in  barf  —  burfen.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  nearly  given  up  the  original  force  of  "  need,"  "  want," 
still  apparent  in  2,  to  its  compound  kbiirfen.  In  some  editions  of  the 
Bible  biirfen,  "  to  want,"  and  lar  —  turren,  "  to  dare,"  are  still  the  rule.  In 
later  editions  beburfen  and  burfen  have  been  substituted  for  them.  4.  The 
preterit  subjunctive  (potential,  see  284,  3)  burfte  is  used  for  a  mild  asser- 
tion :  Die  S'iac^weU  burfte  SSebcnfen  tragen,  biefe^  Urteil  ^u  unterfc^rctkn  (Sch.), 
"  Posterity  very  likely  will  ..."  ®a^  burfte  ju  fpat  fein,  "  I  fear  very 
much,  that  is  too  late."  Etiquette  admits  such  redundant  phrases  as  : 
l^urfte  or  barf  tc^  mir  ertau'6en/  etc. 

3.  9)1  i)  g  e  n  denotes  :  1.  In  its  oldest,  but  now  rare  sense  except  in  dia- 
lect, "  ability  "  and  "  power."  This  it  has  given  up  to  „!onnen/'  Compare 
its  cognates  "  may"  and  "can"  in  Eng.:  3^r  SlnHitf  gilU  ben  ©ngeln  ©tarfe, 
wenn  feiner  fte  ergritnben  mag  (F.  247-8),  "  although  no  one  is  able  ..." 
2.  Concession,  no  interference  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  :  ®er  S3urfd)e 
mag  nac^  ^aufe  ge'^n  (It  lies  with  him,  I  have  no  objection).  Ser  mir  ben 
Seeder  fann  Jvieber  jeigen,  er  mag  i'^n  k'^alten  (Sch.).  3.  Possibility,  the  action 
does  not  concern  or  influence  the  speaker  ;  fijnnen  means  a  possibility  that 
lies  in  the  ability  of  another  person  or  object.  2Ba^  fitr  ®riinro(f^  mbgen 
ba^  fein  (Sch.).  Sr  mag  baa  gefagt  ^ahn,  er  mag  ba^  t^un,  It  is  possible  he 
said  so,  he  may  do  it.  1)a^  %m  mag  je^n  Sa^re  alt  fein.  With  this  force 
it  supplants  the  potential  and  concessive  subjunctives  ;  if  it  stands  itself 
in  the  subjunctive  of  the  present  or  preterit,  it  supplants  also  the  opta- 
tive subjunctive.  3d^  ttjitnfc^e  bap  bie  ganje  Selt  una  ^oren  mag,  |oren  mijge. 
9)J5c^te  au(^  bo^  bie  ganje  SSelt  una  pren  (Le.).  4.  From  2  springs  the  force 
of  "  inclination,"  "  liking,"  "  wishing."  S©aa  ftc^  »ertragt  mit  meiner  5)flic^t, 
mag  tc^  i^r  gem  gewa^ren  (Sch.).  3^  moc^te,  ba§  er  ea  nic^t  n>ieber  crfii^re.  3^ 
cffc  n?aa  id^  mag  unb  Icibe  i»aa  i^  mu§  (Prov.). 

4.  9)1  uf  fen,  +  must,  denotes  :  1.  In  its  oldest  sense,  "  to  have  occa- 
sion, room,"  "to  be  one's  lot,"  "it  is  the  case."  A  trace  of  this  is  left 
in  the  following  uses :  ?Wetn  ^unb  war  o'^ne  SKauIforb  |)inauagelaufen.  9?un 
mupte  aud^  gerabe  ein  9)Dltji'|l  ba|er  fommen  (as  luck  would  have  it,  a  police- 


267]    SYKTAX  OF  THE  VERB — MODAL  AiUXlil/iRli:^.; ' ; '  ^I'Qi  J 

man  came  along).  1)er  Bufall  mu§te  i^n  grabe  ^in  ^ringen.  3um  jweitcn  5D^al 
fott  mlr  lent  ^lang  erfd>atten,  er  mupte  benn  (unless  it  should)  kfonbern  ©inn 
begritnben  (G.,  quoted  in  Sanders'  Diet.).  2.  Necessity  of  various  kinds  : 
Stile  3)icnf(^en  muffen  fterkn.  2)er  ©enne  mu^  [c^eiben  (Sch.).  (£in  Dber^aupt 
mup  fein  (id.).  2)a^  mu^  ein  fci^lec^ter  WlMtx  fetn,  bem  niemal^  fiel  ba^  SBanbern 
ein  (Song).  (£r  ntu§  fe|r  fran!  gewefen  fein;  er  ifl  noc^  fo  fc^nwc^.  The  force 
of  biirfen  :  3(^  mu§  nid^t  i^ergeffen,  "  I  must  not  forget." 

58vau(^en  +  negative  generally  takes  the  place  of  muffen  +  negative  when  it  denotes 
moral  necessity.  ®a§  IJraui^ft  bu  nic^t  ju  tt^un,  wcnn  bu  nic^t  wittft.  9Boi^I  bem,  bev  mtt 
ber  neuen  (3ett)  mcf>t  me:^r  Brau^t  511  leBen  (Sch.). 

5.  <SoUen,  +  shall,  denotes:  1.  Duty  and  obligation.  2;)u  follfl  ®ott 
beinen  ^errn  liet)en  »on  ganjem  ^crjen,  »on  ganjer  ©eele  unb  »on  ganjent  ©emitte 
(B.).  2)u  Mttejl  ba  fein  foUeni  You  ought  to  have  been  there.  2.  Neces- 
sity and  destiny:  2)iefe  i5ur(^t  foil  enbigeni  i^r  ^aupt  fott  fallen.  Sd)  tvill 
?^rieben  ^a'^en  (Sch.).  ^d)  mi^  nic^t  n^a^  foU  e^  bebeuten  (Heine).  2Ba^  foil 
ba(3  ?  What  (is  that)  for?  Sarin "foUte  er  ftc^  taufc^en,  In  that  he  was  bound 
to  be  deceived,  disappointed.  3.  It  denotes  the  statement  and  claim  of 
another,  "  is  to,"  "  is  said  to  "  :  2)aa  SJ^eter  foil  ac^t  3;'^aler  foften.  2)er  ©(^a^ 
ber  ^Riklungen  foU  tm  9?^eine  liegen.  ©iekn  ©trdflinge  fotten  entfommen  fein.  4. 
©oUte  approaches  the  force  of  the  conditional,  +  "  should."  ©ollte  er  nod) 
fontmen,  fag'  i^m,  t^  ^atte  nt(^t  Icinger  tvarten  fijnnen.  <Sollte  er  auc^  v>o^  frant 
fein  ?  Is  it  possible  that  he  is  sick  ? 

6.  SB  0  1 1  e  n,  +  will,  denotes  :  1.  The  will  and  purpose  of  the  sub- 
ject. 2Ba^  ttJoHteft  bu  mit  bem  !l)ol(^e  ?  fprid)  (Sch.).  ^^  will  e«  tt)ieber  »ergef^ 
fen,  mil  ©te  bo^  nic^t  woUenffca^  id)  e(3  njiffen  foil  (G.).  SBotfe  nur  toa^  bu  fannf^ 
unb  bu  Wirfl  fonnen  wa^  bu  iDiUfi.  2.  "To  be  about,"  '*on  the  point  of." 
(Sin  armer  35auer  wottte  j^erkn  (Nicolai).  (£i3  will  regnen.  Frequent  in  stage- 
directions,  „n)itt  gc^en,"  «n)itt  abge^n."  SBill  ftc^  Rector  ewtg  ijon  wir  wenben? 
(Sch.).  3.  The  claim  and  statement  of  another,  who  "says"  or  ''claims 
to  " :  2)er  3euge  will  ben  Slngeflagten  gefel)en  ^aben.  2)u  wittf^  t^n  ju  einem  gutcn 
Bwecfe  betrogen  ^aben.  Notice  the  ambiguity  of  such  a  sentence  as  1)(x  ^err 
will  e6  get^an  ^aben,  "  claims  he  did  it,"  or  according  to  1,  "wills  or  wishes 
that  it  be  done." 

aScCcn  is  really  the  most  diflSicult  to  understand  and  use.  It  occurs  in  a  great  many 
more  idioms  with  ever  varying  shades  of  meaning.  Notice,  e.  g.,  G§  mU  »evtauten,  "  it 
is  spread  abroad."  aSa§  »ctU  bag  fagen?  =  "What  does  that  amount  to?"  "that  is 
nothing."  3(i>  mU  eS  nic^t  gefe^en  ^aben,  I  will  act  as  if  I  had  not  seen  it  or  "nobody 
shall  see  it,"  according  to  1.  SBenn  ber  ©(^uler  bod)  biefe  SKeget  lernen  wottte,  "  if  he  only 
would  .  .  .  =  conditional.  SBotttc  ©ott  ba^  .  .  . ,  would  to  God  that  .  .  .  ®iefe  gebev 
Witt  ni(i)t,  this  pen  does  not  write  (well).   But  it  is  impossible  to  give  all  these  meanings. 


102        ,       SYJ^TAX    OF  THE   VERB— PASSIVE   VOICE.  268- 

Still  Eng.  "  will  "  is  not  far  behind  the  German,    ©cllen  and  wctlen  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  Eng.  "shall"  and  "  will"  of  the  future,  see  279,  3. 

7.  Caffen,  sometimes  classed  here,  is  really  a  causative  auxiliary 
and  never  used  as  such  without  an  inf.,  which  stands  as  a  further  object, 
^etne  i^lage  Ia§t  fie  [(fallen  (Sch.).  lln^erjiiglicl  Ue§  er  brei  33attcrtcn  aufivcrfeit 
(id.).  See  202,  1.  A  second  force  is  "to  allow,"  "  not  to  hinder."  T>n 
®efangentt)arler  lie^  ben  ©efangenen  emwifd)en.  Saffen  ©ie  ba^  Meikn  (=  to 
leave  a  thing  undone.    iCaffcn,  to  look,  is  a  neuter  verb. 

For  laffcn  +  reflexive,  see  272  ;   in  the  imperative,  see  287,  4, 

Remark. — Verbs  of  motion  can  be  omitted,  particularly  when  an  adverb  expresses 
the  direction.  2Biaft  bu  mit  ?  3<^  "mji  I}in.  SaS  ^arfe't  fcQte  fort  (ought  to  be  sent). 
®er  §ut  mu^  in  bie  (S(J)a(^tet.  But  all  except  niii)fen  and  bitrfen  can  be  used  as  inde- 
pendent verbs,  i.  e,  no  other  verb  need  be  supplied.  There  is  no  call  for  a  verb  in  3Sa§ 
foil  bcr  §ut?  (Sch.),  "  What  is  this  hat  (here)  for  ?  Notice  that  foHen,  mov3en,  and  wottcn 
are  really  the  only  ones  that  deserve  the  term  modal  auxiliaries,  since  they  assist  in 
expressing  the  mood.    See  287- 

THE   PASSIVE   VOICE. 

268.  The  active  voice  needs  no  comment.  Only  transitive 
verbs  form  a  complete  passive.  But  transitives  whose  mean- 
ing admits  only  of  an  object  of  the  thing,  also  intransitives 
and  subjective  verbs,  form  only  the  third  person  singular 
with  the  grammatical  subject  CiS  or  without  it.  3t)nen  ivtrt) 
^e^olfen*  S^  tvirfe  gelac^t  unt)  gefungen*  ©eftern  murte  gefpiett. 
33ei  Utt^  gtt  ^aufe  (where  I  come  from)  tt)ir^  i^iel  3CI)ift  gefpielt. 

269.  In  the  transformation  of  the  active  into  the  passive 
voice,  the  direct  object  in  the  accusative  becomes  subject- 
nominative  and  the  former  subject  is  expressed  by  ijon  + 
dative  denoting  the  agent  and  by  burc^  +  accusative  denot- 
ing means  and  instrument.  53aumgarten  erfd?Iug  ten  SBoIfen^ 
f(^ie§en.  2G.  murbe  yon  53.  eriWagen.  1)er  33rtef  murbe  burc^  einen 
X)ienftmann  beforgt  (through  a  porter).    See  prepositions,  304, 2. 

270.  When  a  verb  governs  two  accusatives  both  accusa- 
tives become  nominatives  with  the  verbs  of  naming,  calling, 
scolding.     Sr  tvurte  fein  greunt)  genannt.    See  179,  2. 


273]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB — PASSLS^E   J<)1CE.,   :'/ :  '  \H}3, 

1.  With  Ie|ren  and  fragcn  the  accusative  of  the  thing  may  be  retained, 
particularly  if  that  accusative  be  a  pronoun,  e.  g.,  T)a^  ©(^Iimmtle,iua(5  un(3 
TOiberfd'^rt,  ba^  mxttn  wtr  »om  Slag  gele^rt  (G.).  For  etwa^  gele^rt  werben  it  is 
better  to  use  unterric^tet  toerben ;  for  ettva^  gefragt  werben,  better  nad)  etwa^ 
gefragt  t»erben.  The  accusative  of  the  noun  now  sounds  pedantic,  though 
le^ren  in  M.  H.  G.  always  retained  the  accusative  in  the  passive.  See 
202,  2. 

271.  With  a  verb  governing  an  accusative,  a  genitive,  or 
a  dative,  the  accusative  becomes  nominative  in  the  passive,  but 
the  genitive  and  dative  are  retained.  ^,  wurbe  tci?  ^o(^»errat^ 
angeflagt.  Deiner  wurbe  getiai^t  (no  grammatical  subject)  or  e^ 
njurfce  beiner  ^etad^t,    ^ir  tvurte  gefolgt,  /was  followed. 

1.  The  verbs  folcjen,  ^elfen,  ge^orc^en,  fc{)mei(i^etn,  iDibev^prec^en,  banfen  often  form  a 
personal  passive  in  the  classics  and  in  the  spoken  language,  but  it  is  very  questionable 
whether  this  use  should  be  imitated  ;  certainly  not  by  foreigners  who  are  accustomed 
to  this  construction  in  their  own  language  and  are  apt  to  make  mistakes  in  the  active 
and  say  „ic^  tolge  btcf)"  if  they  hear  or  say  „ic^  werbe  gefolgt,  gey(!^meic^ctt."  Those  who 
defend  the  personal  passive  appeal  to  the  older  accusative  after  Ijelfen  and  fc^metc^etn. 

272.  The  reflexive,  encouraged  by  French  influence,  and  marif  e^  4- 
active  often  replace  the  passive.  For  ^^  roirb  gefungen,  ge^O(^t  stands  ?P?an 
ftngt,  ^o(^t,  Xia  offnet  fic^  ba^  %^ox,  Then  the  gate  is  opened,  ^er  ©cl)lufrel 
Wirb  ftd)  finben,  The  key  will  be  found.  More  frequent  than  the  reflexive 
alone  is  jid)  .  .  .  laffen,  e.  g.,  (£r  ivirb  ft(^  Beflimmen  laffen  ju  .  .  .  ,  He  will 
let  himself  be  influenced  to  .  .  .  ,  He  can  be  induced  to  .  .  .  2)a(5  (apt 
fi(|  (eid^t  mac^en,  That  is  easily  done.  2)a(J  la^t  ftc^  t)oren,  That  is  plausible. 
See  290,  3,  h.  It  is  clear  from  this  that  the  German  passive  is  less  fre- 
quent than  the  English.  The  grammars  boast  more  of  the  full  and  long 
compound  tenses  than  actual  usage  justifies. 

273.  Origin  of  the  Passive  Voice. 

1.  In  O.  H.  G.  fetn  («2w,  wesan),  toerben  (werdan)  were  used  to  express  the  passive. 
Gothic  alone  shows  traces  of  anything  like  a  Latin  passive,  but  even  there  the  peri- 
phrastic form  had  to  be  resorted  to.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  present  is  ich  wirde  gelobet ;  pre- 
terit, ich  wart  gelobet ;  perfect,  ich  bin  gelobet ;  pluperfect,  ich  was  gelobet.  Warden 
was  added  to  the  perfect  from  the  13th  century  downward,  but  was  not  considered 
essential  until  the  17th  century.  The  passive  idea  lies  originally  only  in  the  past  or 
passive  participle  and  not  in  lucrben,  which  means  only  "I  enter  into  the  state  of  being 
„gelie6t,"  „ge?(^tagen,"  etc.  Compare  the  future,  ict)  roerbe  licfeen,  "I  enter  into  the  state 
of  loving."  The  M.  H.  G.  ich  bin  geliebet,  ich  was  (war)  geliebet  are  by  no  means  lost. 
Only  they  are  not  called  tenses  now.    ^*  6in  geliefet,  ba§  ^tmmev  ift  gefegt  mean  "  I  am 


lOit  ;   ;       :    .?JNTkX   OF  THE   VERB — TENSES.  [274- 

in  the  state  of  being  loved,"  "the  room  is  in  a  swept  state,"  "has  been  cleaned,"  "is 
clean."  The  fjarticiples  are  felt  as  adjectives.  3^  6in  geltefit  worben,  ia^  3""'"^^  ift 
gefegt  wcrben  mean  '  I  have  passed  into  the  state  of  being  loved,"  "the  room  has 
passed  into  the  state  of  being  swept."  The  transition  into  this  state,  and  not  the 
present  state,  but  the  fact  or  action  are  emphasized,  hence  the  idea  of  tense  is  promi- 
nent. The  fitness  of  the  name  of  perfect  passive  for  this  form  and  not  also  for  \^  6in 
gelicbt  is  apparent  because  i^  6in  gelieBt  njorben  is  composed  of  tc^  6in  (ge)tt»Drbcn  (the 
perfect)  +  geliebt.  In  O.  H.  G.  fein  still  formed  the  present  as  "  to  be  "  now  in  Eng.,  but 
already  in  M.  H.  G.  werden  was  the  prevalent  auxiliary  (see  above),  while  sein  was 
prevalent  in  the  perfect. 

2.  Perhaps  the  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  force  of  the  vari- 
ous forms : 

!S)ie  %^6)\ix  if!  ^erlobt,  is  engaged  to  be  married.  S5cm  ©ife  t'efrett  finb 
©trom  unb  33a(^e  (F.  903).  ©iefer  teffel  ifl  i)on  ^Bergen  fcegrenjt  (Hu.)  These 
three  are  not  passive  tenses.  But  compare  :  3u  bent  !Gad)erli(i)cn  nnvb  etn 
(Sontra'ft  »on  SSolIfomtnen^eiten  unb  UnvoUfommen|eiten  erforbert  (Le.)  (present 
tense).  1)icfer  9)un!t  tfl  ijtel  Beflritten  n^orben  (perf.  pass.).  The  same  differ- 
ence between  wurbe  +  participle  (=  imperfect  pass.)  and  n>ar  +  partici- 
ple (no  tense),  e.g.,  .^onte'r  war  »or  5(Iter^  unflreitig  fletpiger  gelefen  al^  je^t 
(Le.).  !Die  |)aufer  tuaren  fefllid^  gefc^mitcft  (no  tense).  ®er  9f?aukr^auptmann 
war  \&im  gefangen  genommen  worben,  dU  feme  Ceute  '^erkifamen  (pluperfect 
pass.).  !E)er  ©pio'n  wurbe  o^ne  weltered  an  einen  Slfl  gefnitpft  unb  erMngt  (imper- 
fect pass.). 

Examples  of  the  future  and  conditional  perfects  passive  are  very  rare 
in  the  classics. 

Syntax  of  the  Tenses. 

Simple  Tenses. 
274.     The  Present. 

1.  It  denotes  an  action  as  now  going  on.  S5ie  glanjt  tie 
(Sonne,  wie  la(^t  tie  %hxx  (G.). 

2.  It  is  the  tense  used  in  the  statement  of  a  general  truth 
or  fact  or  custom,  in  which  the  idea  of  time  is  lost  sight  of. 
^reimal  tret  ift  neun.  ®ott  ift  tie  2iek  (B.).  ^orgen  mad^t  @orgcn 
(Prov.). 

3.  The  historical  present  is  used  in  vivid  narrative  for  a 
past  tense.  IDa^  3U  Sinj  gegeBene  53eifpiel  fintet  aUgemeine  '^^6>^ 
almung;  man  »erflu(^t  ta^  Slntenlen  te^  3Serrdter^ ;  alle  5lrme'en  fallen 
»on  t^m  aB  (Sch. ). 


275]  SYKTAX   OF  THE   YERB — TElsTSES.  105 

4.  For  the  English  perfect  German  (also  French)  uses  the 
present  when  the  action  or  state  continues  in  the  present 
time,  but  there  is  generally  an  adverb  denoting  duration  of 
time  qualifying  it.  Ex.:  5flun  bin  id^  fieben  3:age  l)ter  (G.).  S^vd 
Sage  gekn  mir  f(^on  l)ter  ^erum  (id.).  Sci)  Un  atl^ier  erft  fuqe  S^tt 
(F.  1868). 

Tins  use  is  by  no  means  new  in  German  or  unknown  in  English,  e.g.,  "  I 
forget  why."  "  The  world  by  what  I  learn  is  no  stranger  to  your  generos- 
ity "  (Goldsmith,  quoted  by  Matzner).  It  is  closely  related  to  the  present 
sub  2  and  3,  and  generally  translated  by  "  have  been  "  +  present  participle. 

5.  The  future  present,  that  is,  the  present  with  the  force  of 
the  future,  is  much  more  frequent  in  German  than  in  English. 
Ex.:  ^nn,  nein,  id)  g4e  nac^  itx  (Btalt  ^uxM  (F.  820).  S3er  n?ei^, 
mx  morgen  ixbtx  un5  bepe^It  (Sch. ). 

It  is  a  very  old  use  of  the  present,  from  a  time  when  the  periphrastic 
future  was  not  yet  developed. 

6.  The  English  periphrastic  present  in  "  I  am  writing,"  "  I  do  write" 
rarely  has  corresponding  German  phrases.  For  instance,  t^un  is  dialectic 
and  archaic.  Unb  t^u^  nic^t  me^r  in  SCBorten  framen  (F.  385).  A  large  num- 
ber of  present  participles  are  looked  upon  as  adjectives  and  stand  in  the 
predicate  after  fein>  but  they  do  not  form  a  tense  (see  273, 1).  There  is 
a  difference  between  the  simple  present  and  fein  +  pres.  part.  The  for- 
mer, if  it  occur  at  all,  denotes  an  act  of  the  subject,  the  latter  denotes  a 
quality  of  the  same  or  of  another  subject.  Ex.:  ^an  nimtnt  teil  an  tttoa^, 
one  takes  part  in  something.  Semanb  ijl  teUne|menb,  one  is  sympathetic. 
'Lk  %axhi  fc^rett  is  hardly  used,  but  bie  %axU  t)!  eine  fc^retenbe,  the  color  is 
a  loud  one.  Die  2(u(Sii(|t  retjt  einen^tmmer  p^er  ju  jleigen,  the  prospect  entices 
one  to  climb  higher  and  higher,  but  bie  STu^ftc^t  tj^  reij^enb;  the  prospect  is 
charming.     Compare  the  Eng.  "  charming,"  "  promising,"  etc. 

275.     The  Preterit. 

1.  It  is  strictly  the  "  historical "  tense,  used  in  narration, 
when  one  event  is  related  in  some  connection  with  another 
event,  as  following  it  or  preceding  it.  Ex. :  (Eafar  tarn,  fa^  unt 
ftegte.    (£r  mart)  geBoren,  er  leBte,  na^m  ein  SGeib  unl>  j^arb  (Gellert). 

In  the  story  of  the  creation  in  Genesis  only  the  pret.  is  used  until 


106  SYiq^TAX  OF  THE  VERB--TENSES.  [276- 

chapter  3,  verse  4,  when  the  account  is  summed  up  Sllfo  ift  ^immel  unb  (£rbe 
gcworbett/  which  has  the  perfect  as  it  should  have.     See  276. 

2.  It  represents  a  past  action  as  lasting,  customary;  also  as 
contemporaneous  with  another  action.  ®efterrt  tam  ter  ^iJZeticu^ 
l^ier  au^  Uv  ©tatt  ^inau^  ^um  3lmtmann  (connect  „t)inau^"  with 
„^um''  not  with  „au^  Ux  @tatt")  unt)  fant  mic^  m^  ter  Srte  unter 
fiotten^  ^intern,  mie  einige  auf  mir  ^erumfraB&elten,  anterc  mic^  nerften 
(G.).    ^ii^n  mar  ta^  SSort,  weil  e^  tie  2:^at  nic^t  n?ar  (Sch.). 

Compound  Tenses. 

276.  The  Perfect. 

It  is  used  to  denote  a  past  event  as  a  separate  act  or  inde- 
pendent fact.  The  act  is  completed,  but  the  result  of  it  is  felt 
in  the  present  and  may  continue  in  the  present.  Ex. :  ^d)  t)abc 
genoffen  ba^  irJif(^e  ®IM  (Sch. ).  (^ott  |at  tie  SCelt  erfd^affen  =  God 
is  the  creator  of  the  world,  but  ^m  Slnfang  fd)uf  ®ott  ^immel  unD 
(Srte  (B.).     i:u  W^  ^^^W,  ^cta^io  (Sch.).     See  279,  2. 

1.  In  the  best  writers  this  distinction  is  generally  observed,  but  not  in 
the  spoken  language,  in  which  the  perfect  is  crowding  out  the  preterit. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  exact  use  of  the  tenses,  particularly  of  the  pre- 
terit and  perfect,  may  be  recommended  the  introduction  to  Schiller's 

@ef(^t(|te  be^  5(bfatt^  ber  ijereinigten  S^Zieberlanbe. 

277.  The  Pluperfect. 

It  denotes  a  past  action  which  was  completed  before  another 
past  action  began.  Ex. :  ZiU"!^  ^atte  !aum  feinen  9fluc!marfd)  m^c^ 
treten,aU  ber  ^ontg  fein  Sager  au  @(^n?elit  auflo&  unb  gegen  Sranffurt 
an  bcr  Ober  riicfte  (Sch.). 

278.  The  Future. 

1.  It  denotes  an  action  yet  to  take  place.  Ex. :  S3a^  Wirb 
aw^  bem  ^inbtein  n?erren  ?  (B.).    T)tv  ^aifer  ttjirb  morgen  abreifen. 

2.  It  denotes  probability  and  should  then  not  be  translated 
by  an  EngHsh  future  as  a  rule.  Ex. :  ^er  ipunb  tuirb  fed)g  ^a^xt 
alt  fein  (=  ij^  mo^l  or  n?a^rfc^einUd)),  the  dog  may  be  or  is  prob- 


280]  SYNTAX  OF  THE   VERB — ^TEKSES.  107 

ably,  six  years  old.  2Cer  flojjft?  (£^  wirb  cin  53ettler  fein,  it  is 
probably  a  beggar. 

3.  In  familiar  language  it  stands  for  the  imperative  implying 
confident  expectation  of  the  result.  Xn  mirft  t)ier  Bletben,  You 
shall  stay  here.    Du  luirft  U&i  pten,  Take  good  care  not  to  do  it. 

For  the  present  with  the  force  of  the  future,  see  274,  5. 

279.  The  Future  Perfect. 

1.  It  is  the  perfect  transferred  to  the  future.  3Sergekn6 
mxt)d  i^r  fitr  euren  gelD^errn  eu(^  geo|)fert  1^aUn  (Sch.).  More  fre- 
quently than  the  future,  the  future  perfect  denotes  probability: 
So  toin  er  tie  5^ac^t  gugeBrat^t  ^ahm  ?  (Le.),  Where  can  he  have 
spent  the  night?  (£5  mirt)  toa^  anbre^  tooU  kbcutet  ^ahn  (Sch.), 
It  probably  meant  something  else. 

2.  As  the  present  can  have  future  force,  so  the  perfect  can 
have  future  perfect  force.  5^t(^t  e^er  fccn!  t(^  tiefe^  33Iatt  git 
brauc^en,  U^  eine  Z^at  get^an  ift,  tie  unn)iterfpred)li(^  ben  Jpo(|ijerrat 
Begeugt  (Sch.). 

3.  In  M.  H.  G.,  the  future  perfect  is  unknown  and  its  force  is  expressed 
by  ge  prefixed  to  the  present,  and  by  the  perfect. 

\  a.  Guard  against  confounding  the  modal  auxiliaries  in  German  with 
the  Eng.  future.  Approach  to  a  future  might  be  felt  in  tooUcn  and  fotteit, 
e.g.,  Wa^  wollen  fte  benn  l^erau<3»er^oren,  mm  einer  unfc^ulbig  ijl:?  (G.).  2)er 
dtti^^ta^  ju  5lug^krg  fott  ^offcntU^  unfere  ^xoit'ttt  jur  0leife  fertngen  (G.).  See 
283,  4. 

280.  The  Conditionals. 

They  are  future  subjunctives  corresponding  to  the  preterit 
and  pluperfect  subjunctive  as  the  future  corresponds  to  the 
present.  As  in  all  subjunctives,  the  idea  of  tense  is  not  empha- 
sized. Preterit  subjunctive  and  I.  conditional,  pluperfect  sub- 
junctive and  II.  conditional  are  nearly  identical  in  force,  but 
preterit  and  pluperfect  deserve  the  preference,  particularly  in 
the  passive.  In  dependent  conditional  clauses  the  preterit  or 
pluperfect  subjunctive  only  can  stand.     In  the  main  sentence 


108  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB — TEKSES.  [281- 

there  is  no  choice  between  them  and  the  conditionals.  Ex. : 
O^ne  teinen  ffiat  n?urbe  i(^  e^  ni(^t  get^an  1^abm  or  l)atte  i(^  e^  ntd^t 
get^an.  SBa^  mvu\t  tu  an  meiner  ©telle  t^un?  S3dreft  tu  ^icr 
gemefen,  mein  33ruter  n?dre  ni(^t  geftorkn  (B.). 

281.  The  conditionals  should  be  substituted  for  the  subjunctive  of 
the  preterit  and  of  the  pluperfect :  1.  When  the  force  of  the  future  is 
to  be  emphasized  as  in  :  ^a^mt  ber  ^ranfe  bie  5)?ebt^in  regelmcipig  ein,  [o  Jvurbe 
ba(3  %uhtx  »on  biefer  <Stunbe  an  attnta^Iic^  ijerfc^winben.  ®ie  glaubteu,  fie  wurben 
ft(^  leic^t  aU  |)elben  barjleUen  (Sch.).  2.  When  the  indicative  and  subjunc- 
tive forms  coincide  as  is  the  case  with  certain  persons  in  weak  verbs : 
9(uf  eittcn  (£ib  tDurbe  tc^  t^m  nic^t  glaukn.  „®lauW"  might  be  pret.  ind.  3^i 
wiirbet  bieS  OJcitfel  mtr  erflaren,  fagte  fie  (Sch.).  w3^r  werbef'  could  also  be 
indicative  future. 

The  Tense  of  Indirect  Speech. 

282.  The  rule  is  :  The  indirect  speech  retains  the  tense 
of  the  direct.  Ex.:  ^ie  33dume  feien  geknnt,  fagt  er,  unt)  n?er  fie 
fd^dttge,  tern  iuac^fe  feine  ^ant)  ^erau^  gum  @rabe  (Sch.).  Sgmont 
Beteuerte,  ta§  ta^  (3an^t  ntcht^  aU  ein  S^afelfd^erg  gemefen  fei.  Vex 
^nah  Be^auptete,  er  ^dtte  e^  ni(^t  get^an,  mnn  er  md)t  ijon  feinen 
©efd^rten  "f^^u  ijerleitet  morten  mdre.  (£r  fagte  auc^,  er  njofle  e^  nid^t 
wiener  t^un,  menn  matt  i^m  je^t  ijergeBe*  !Der  S^uq^  fottttte  ttii^t 
fi^morett,  bag  er  tett  3tttge!lagten  ie  gefe'^eit  ^ah* 

1.  But  this  rule  is  not  strictly  observed.  If  the  main  clause  contains, 
for  instance,  a  past  tense,  the  other  clause  may  take  a  preterit  for  the 
present,  a  pluperfect  for  the  perfect,  or  a  conditional  for  the  future  :  2)a^ 
tvaren  bte  9)Ianeten,  fagte  mtr  ber  %^xtx,  fie  regierten  ha^  ®efd)ic!  (Sch. ).  Tsf)x 
witrbet  bie^  Oldtfet  mtr  erflciren,  fagte  fie  (id.).  Wn  melbet  (pres.  for  perf.)  er/er 
lage  fran!  (id.).  If  any  ambiguity  arises,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the  case, 
this  license  should  not  be  indulged  in.  If  the  main  verb  is  in  the  pres- 
ent, it  is  not  well  to  substitute  the  preterit  or  pluperfect  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  because  this  license  is  due  to  attraction  of  tenses,  viz., 
preterit  in  one  —  preterit  or  pluperfect  in  the  other.  Compare  :  ®r 
{»eteuert,  er  fei  bagegett,  he  asserts,  that  he  is  opposed.  ®r  beteuert,  er  ware 
bagegen  might  be  construed  as  meaning  er  it>urbe  bagegcn  feiu,  which  means 
'*he  would  be  opposed."    (£r  teteucrt,  er  fei  bagegen  gewefcn,  he  had  been 


283]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB  — TEI^^SES.  109 

opposed  ;  er  woirc  bagegen  gewefen  might  moreover  be  understood  as  having 
the  force  of  the  II.  Conditional. 

For  the  mood  of  the  indirect  statement,  see  285.  For  further  remarks  on  the  use 
of  tenses,  see  284,  also  the  General  Syntax. 

283.  Origin  of  the  Compound  Tenses. 

1.  The  compound  tenses  in  all  the  living  languages  are  products  of  the  development 
of  80-caUeA  periphrastic  conjugation,  which  uses  certain  independent  verbs  denoting 
existence,  possession,  transition,  or  the  beginning  of  an  action,  in  connection  with  an 
infinitive,  participle,  or  gerundive.  The  more  the  inflectional  endings  of  the  simple 
tenses  of  the  earlier  periods  weathered,  the  more  favorable  were  the  chances  for  the 
growth  of  analytical  and  circumlocutory  tenses.  Compare  the  Latin  amor,  amattis 
sum  or  fui  ;  excusavi,  excusatam,  -um  habeo  or  teneo  with  French  je  suis  aime,  -ee, 
je  fus  aime,  -ee  ;  je  Vai  excuse,  -ee,  je  Vavais  excuse,  -ee.  The  Germanic  languages 
have  only  two  simple  tenses.  Gothic  shows  still  a  mutilated  passive.  But  the  future 
perfect  and  pluperfect  active  and  passive  sprang  up  within  historic  times  from  a  com- 
bination of  an  independent  verb  with  an  infinitive  or  participle,  which  were  at  first 
felt  only  as  predicate  noun  or  adjective.  The  participle  in  O.  H.  G.  could  be  inflected 
like  any  predicate  adjective. 

2.  At  different  periods  of  High  German  there  were  dififerent  verbs  which  could  be 
thus  employed.  Besides  the  modern  auxiliaries  :^aBen,  fein  and  luerben,  in  O.  H.  G. 
cigan,  + to  owTa.  In  Gothic  haban  +  inf.  was  made  to  express  the  future,  in  O.  H.  G. 
suln  (shall)  and  werdan  +  pres.  part. ;  in  M.  H.  G.  besides  these,  wellen,  muezen.  3ct) 
l^abe  ten  ^ut  alJgenDmmcn  or  aufgefe^t  means  originally  I  have,  possess  the  hat  in  some 
state  or  position,  viz.,  in  my  hand  (taken  off")  or  on  my  head  (put  on).  The  German 
order,  too,  shows  this  early  construction  much  better  than  the  English  "  I  have  taken 
oft'  my  hat."  Compare  the  Latin  Excusatum  habeas  me  rogo,  "  Have  me  excused, 
pray,"  ,,93itte,  ^<xlt  (r)atte)  mid)  (fui)  entfc^ulbigt. '^  §a6cn  could  only  be  used  with  tran- 
sitive verbs,  but  losing  the  distinctive  meaning  of  possession,  it  could  combine  with 
verbs  having  an  object  in  the  G.  and  D.  and  even  with  no  object,  viz.,  with  intransi- 
tive verbs.  §a6en  required  the  past  participle  in  O.  H.  G.  in  the  A.,  but  fctn  required 
it  in  the  N.  ©cin  could  not,  from  the  nature  of  its  meaning,  form  the  perf .  or  pluperf. 
active  of  any  transitive  verb,  but  only  of  intransitives  denoting  a  continuance  of  a  state 
(bleifien,  \ixn)  or  transition  into  another  state,  where  it,  however,  collided  with  wevbcn, 
used  in  the  future.  But  notice  that  the  idea  of  transition  and  change  is  in  most  verbs, 
here  in  question,  due  to  the  prefix,  ©ein  +  past  participle  could  onlj-  mean  existence 
in  a  certain  state,  at  most  the  beginning  or  ceasing  of  an  existence. 

3.  As  to  verbs  of  motion,  their  relation  to  these  verbs  is  very  intimate.  When  it  is 
not,  ^aten  becomes  the  rival  of  fein,  as  soon  as  the  activity  of  motion  is  to  be  brought 
out  and  not  the  result.  That  fein  could  be  used  with  a  past  participle  of  a  verb  of  mo- 
tion at  all,  was  partly  brought  about  by  its  use  with  a  present  participle  and  infinitive. 
Such  forms  as  cermutcni),  »erm6genb,  nat^gebenb  fein,  wermuten  fein  are  remnants  of  the 
use  oisin  -\-  pres.  part,  or  inf.  in  M.  H.  G.  We  do  not  feel  the  participle  or  infinitive 
as  such  now.    They  form  no  tense. 

4.  aBevben  +  pres.  part,  was  in  M.  H.  G.  more  common  than  werbeu  +  inf.,  but  the 


110  SYmAX   OF  THE  VERB — MOODS.  284- 

latter  was  the  established  future  in  the  16th  century.    From  "  I  pass  into  the  state  of 
praising  "  to  "  I  shall  praise  "  is  not  a  long  step. 

5.  The  conditionals  formed  with  murbe  sprang  up  in  the  14th  century  and  were  set- 
tled in  the  16th,  according  to  Grimm.  In  M.  H.  G.  before  the  13th  century  "  solde^'''' 
"  wolde  "  were  used  as  in  the  other  Germanic  languages,  but  these  lacked  the  umlaut, 
and  therefore  were  not  easily  distinguishable  as  subjunctives. 


THE   MOODS. 

Subjunctive. 

284.  The  indicative  is  the  mood  of  reality,  the  subjunctive 
is  the  mood  of  unreaHty,  contingency,  possibility. 

1.  The  imperative  subjunctive  helps  to  fill  out  the  impera- 
tive for  the  third  persons  sg.  and  pi.  and  the  first  person  pi. 
It  is  a  strong  optative,  see  sub  2. 

Ex.:  5(tte^  fcltweige,  jeber  netge  ernf^en  %'miXi  nun  fein  D|r  (Song).  (Be^e  jeber 
n)ie  er'^  treibe,  fc^e  jeber  wo  er  Heibe  (G.).  (Seien  <Sie  mir  widfo'mmen.  Caffcn 
tt)ir  ba^,  let  us  not  do  this.  ®e|en  xoix  biefen  9)aragra)3t)(en)  noc^  mal  burc^,  let 
us  go  over  this  paragraph  once  more.  ®e^en  (Sie.  %nitx[  bie  |)erren  gefal^^ 
ligjl  ein  (rare). 

SBerbe  and  \z\,  ^eib  really  subjunctives,  are  used  as  imperatives  in  the  second  person. 
SBerbe  tnunter,  mein  ©emiite  (Hymn),    ©ei  mir  gegrii^t,  mein  a3ei'g  (Sch.). 

2.  The  optative  subjunctive  expresses  a  wish  or  request. 
The  present  subjunctive  implies  confidence  of  fulfilment. 
Only  the  third  person  is  used. 

Ex. :  !r)td)  fii^re  burd^  ba^  wilbkwegte  Ceben  ein  pabige^  ®ef(^t(f  (Sch.).  2)etn 
5'?ame  fei  i^ergeffen  (Uh.).    @ott  »erme^re  bie  ®abe  (G.). 

The  preterit  subjunctive  implies  less  assurance,  and,  like 
the  pluperfect  subjunctive,  even  no  expectation  of  realization. 

Ex. :  D  waren  xo\x  weiter  I  o  tt>ar  i(^  ju  ^au^  (G.).  D  foi^fl  bu,  »ofler  SWon* 
benfc^ein  ...  (P.  386).  2Bare  er  nur  no^  am  Sefeen !  (Implying  „er  ifl  aber  tot"). 
Srommer  ©tab,  o  l^att^  ic^  nimmer  mit  bem  <Sd)n)erte  bi(^  ijertaufc^t  (Sch.).  See 
also  F.  393-7. 

3;  The  potential  subjunctive  expresses  an  opinion  as  such, 
a  possibility,  a  mild  assertion  of  an  undoubted  fact  (diplomatic 
subj.) ;  it  stands  in  questions,  direct  and  indirect;  in  exclama- 


285J  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB — MOODS.  Ill 

tions.  The  preterit  and  I.  conditional  are  the  potential  sub- 
junctives of  the  present ;  the  pluperfect  and  II.  conditional, 
of  the  past. 

Ex.:  3(|  reinte,  H6^V  i^,  boc&  noc^  fo  jtemlt(^  jufammen,  »a^  jufammett  geprt 
(Le.).  !Da^  ginge  noc^,  "that  might  do  yet"  (id.).  2Ber  twit^tc  ba^  nic^t? 
Everybody  knows  that,  ^citte  i<i)  boc^  nimmerme|)r  gebac^t,  ba§  er  fo  grop  mx^ 
ben  wiirbe  (Le.).  2Bie  lie^e  iiit)  aUt^  fc^reiben !  (G.)  (Implying  „e^  ijl  unmoglic^")- 
^a\i  §atte  ic^  ta^  SSefle  ijcrgeflen  (id.).  aSeinafe  ware  \6)  gegen  einen  aSaum  gerannt. 
2)u  ^attefl  ba^  gemu§t?  (Implying  „\^  gkube  e<3  nic^t).  9ii^tr  bap  id^  Wiipte,  not 
as  far  as  I  know. 

See  also  tlie  modal  auxiliaries,  267. 

4.  The  concessive  subjunctive  denotes  an  admission,  yield- 
ing, and  supposition.  Generally  only  in  the  third  person  of 
the  present  and  perfect.  It  borders  closely  upon  the  optative 
and  conditional. 

Ex.:  (£«  fofle  mi  ea  tt)otte  (Le.).  di  fet,  ''(it  is)  granted."  ©efette,  bu 
feifl  citt  QUter  ober  f(^Ummer,  leg^  bt(|  aufi  D^x  (Uh.).    See  mbgen,  267,  3. 

5.  The  unreal  subjunctive  stands  in  conditional  sentences 
both  in  the  premise  and  the  conclusion,  i.  e.  in  the  dependent 
clause  and  in  the  main  clause,  when  the  premise  is  not  true. 
The  preterit  and  pluperfect  stand  in  the  premise;  the  preterit, 
pluperfect,  and  the  two  conditionals  in  the  conclusion.  The 
preterit  has  present  and  future  force,  the  pluperfect  has  future 
force  only. 

Ex. :  (Bi  Uepe  ft(^  alle«  trefflid^  fi^U^teitf  fonnte  man  bie  <Ba6)tn  jweimal  ^er* 
ric^ten  (G.).  3(^  mxt  nic^t^,  wenn  i^  Uitbt  wai  i(|  Bin  (id.).  SBenn  tt)tr  ®elb 
bei  una  ge^abt  fatten,  fo  wiirben  tt)tr  ben  Slrmen  wai  gegel^en  ^aben. 

The  premise  omitted  or  represented  by  an  adverb,  etc. :  3^  t^ate  ba^ 
nii^t  an  2)einer  ^tette  =  wenn  ic^  an  !Deiner  ©tette  todxt.  2Bir  tomn  be^  Zohti, 
D^ne  Sllpenfloc!  ware  ber  Banberer  in  bie  Zkft  ^inabge fatten. 

The  conclusion  omitted :  3a  »enn  tt>ir  ni(|t  wdrcn,  fagte  bie  Saterne  jum 
9)?onb.   !Da  ging  fie  au^  (Folk-lore). 

285.  The  subjunctive  is  the  mood  of  the  indirect  state- 
ment, in  which  the  speaker  expresses  the  ideas  of  another  in 


112  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB.  —  MOODS.         [286- 

his  own  words  without  sharing  the  responsibiUty  for,  and  belief 
in,  the  statement.     For  examples  see  282. 

The  third  sentence  sliows  that  unreal  conditional  clauses  are  not  affected 
when  part  of  an  indirect  statement  The  fourth,  also  the  last  of  328,  show- 
how  other  clauses  are  affected. 

Imperative. 

286.  It  expresses  a  command  and  occurs  only  in  the  2.  p. 
sg.  and  pi.  For  the  1.  and  3.  p.  pL,  see  284,  1.  Sile  mit  SBeile, 
Make  haste  slowly.  Seke  In  mid)  meine  Seutc  fennen  (Sch.). 
33inbet  xbn  (id.).     3Bartet  i|r,  inbem  n?ir  iooran  kufen* 

1.  The  pronoun  is  quite  optional  ;  only  when  there  is  a  contrast,  as  in 
the  last  sentence  (i^r  —  xoix),  it  should  stand.  In  the  subjunctive  it  al- 
ways stands. 

The  imperative  is  only  used  in  the  present  and  has  future  force, 
but  by  a  license  also  a  perfect  imperative  occurs  :  33efen !  33efen !  (Seib^«J 
getDcfen  !  says  the  apprentice  when  he  wants  the  brooms  to  cease  being 
watercarriers  (G.). 

287.  Other  verbal  forms  that  take  imperative  force  and  a 
very  strong  one,  are  : 

1.  The  infinitive  :  ?0^aul  (SHunb)  ^alten  I  Hold  yonr  tongue. 
^x6^t  anfaffen  1  Do  not  touch. 

2.  The  past  participle  :  ^ie  2;rommeI  gerii^rt  (G.).  S^'ifd)  auf 
^ameraten,  an\'^  f fert,  auf^  ^ferb !  in  t»a6  gelb,  in  tie  ^rei^eit 
geaogen  (Sch.). 

3.  The  present  and  future  indicative  :  ®eorg,  fen  Hei6ft  urn 
mi(^  (G).  t)n  tvirft  ten  Slpfel  f(^ie§en  i)on  tern  .to|)fte^  ^naben 
(Sch.).     See  278,  3. 

4.  The  modal  auxiliaries  denoting  a  necessity,  duty,  can 
express  imperative  force,  also  laffen.  tn  fotlft  nic^t  fte^Ien  (B.). 
^ein  ^^enf^  mn§  miijlfett  (Le.),  no  man  ought  to  be  compelled. 

Since  the  Eng.  "let"  shows  no  inflection,  notice  the  German  forms: 
Cag  itiv:J  !^cf)en,  to  a  person  addressed  as  bit ;  plural  fiaffl  un^  ge^en.  Saffen 
©ie  uni3  gc^en,  to  a  person  addressed  as  <Sie. 


290]  SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB — INFINITIVE.  113 

Infinitive. 

288.  It  is  a  verbal  noun  and  the  present  infinitive  has 
neither  voice,  tense,  nor  inflection.  The  compound  infinitive 
arose  hke  the  compound  tenses  (see  283) :  gelobt  tperCen,  to  be 
praised;  geloM  WxUn  fein,  to  have  been  praised;  geloh  ^aben,  to 
have  praised. 

1.  Notice  the  marked  diflference  in  meaning  between  the  present  of  some 
of  the  modal  auxiliaries  +  perfect  infinitive,  and  the  perfect  or  pluper- 
fect +  present  infinitive.  Ex.  :  Der  ^utf(|er  n>iE  ben  ©efangenen  gefel^en 
()aben  =  claims  to  have  seen  him,  but  ^at  t^n  fc^en  roollen  =  wanted  to  see 
him.  S)er  ^auftrer  mup  ttorkigegangen  fein  =  must  have  passed  by,  but  ^at 
ijorbeige^cn  muffen,  was  forced  to  pass  by,  etc. 

289.  We  distinguish  between  the  infinitive  wilhout  ju  and 
with  ju. 

The  former  is  the  older  construction.  Being  a  noun,  the  infinitive  always  stood  in 
the  D.  after  ,511  in  O.  and  M.  H.  G.  But  in  early  N.  H.  G.,  when  it  was  no  longer  in- 
flected, the  prepositional  infinitive  gained  ground  and  gave  also  rise  to  the  gerundive 
(see  298).  Usage  is  in  many  cases  still  unsettled  as  to  the  use  of  ju.  Its  frequent  use 
is  the  source  of  much  bad  style  (sec  Sanders' ^^auptfc^merigleiten"  .  .  .  sub  Inf.).  The 
cases  where  the  infinitive  has  taken  the  place  of  the  present  participle  are  mentioned 
below  under  each  head.  In  the  gerundive  alone  the  participial  form  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  infinitive.    See  298. 

The  Infinitive  without  ju. 

290.  1.  It  is  dependent  upon  the  modal  auxiliaries.  Dcr 
^ote  mlE  e^  OiWi  alter  Seute  ^yxxi^  erfa^rett  ^aben.  Wl<kn  foti  ben  3:ag 
nid)t  ijor  tern  5lbenb  loben  (Prov.).  Also  upon  t^un  in  quaint  and 
dialect  style,  e.  g.,  IDa  tl)aten  fte  p*  trennen  (Uh.).  See  the 
speeches  of  ^art^e  and  ?!J?ar^arete  in  F.,  I.  Upon  l)aBen  in  the 
phrase  gut  :^akn.  X)u  kft  gut  reben,  it  is  easy  enough  for  you  to 
talk.    @r  t^ut  nid^t^  aU  .  .  .  ,  he  does  nothing  but  .  .  . 

2.  In  certain  phrases  dependent  upon  some  verbs  of  motion; 
also  upon  ^elfen,  ^ei^en  (command),  laffen,  le^ren,  lernen,  maiden, 
nennen.  The  verbs  of  motion  are:  fpa^ierett  reiteu,  f^ren,  9e:^en; 
f^lafen    ge^en,  fic^    fc^lafen  legen,  etc.     ^eif'    mic^    ni(^t   reten, 


114  SYNTAX  OF  THE   VEEB — Iiq^FIiq^ITIVE.  [291- 

^eif  mic^  f^weigen;  benn  mein  ®e:^eimnt^  ift  mir  5)Pt(^t  (G.).    Se^re 
mi^  t^utt  na6^  beinem  SBo^lgefallen  (B.).   See  Schiller's  Tell,  1549. 

3.  Dependent  upon  certain  verbs  of  rest:  hkikn  (most  fre- 
quently), litQcn,  fte^en  (raiely);  and  upon  verbs  of  perceiving: 
ftnben,  fii^Ien  (rarely),  ^oren,  fe^enj  also  ^abm*  ©tecfen  Bleibett,  to 
stick  fast  (intr.).  ©c^lafen  liegen*  Sir  fanben  beit  Seic^nam  im 
SBalbe  liegen*  Sir  fa^en  ben  Bii^rcr  iiber  bem  Slbgrunbe  f^meBen, 
Der  it^roler  1^at  Qmo^n\i6^  %t'ttxn  am  S^nit  fteden,  ber  Sngldnber 
33dnber  ^erunter^angen.  3(^  ^ab^  e^  bfter^  rii^men  ^oren,  ein  ^omo^ 
bia'nt  fbnnt'  etnen  ^farrer  le^ren  (F.  526-7). 

a.  ©ettt  is  still  so  used  in  dialect.  Sr  tfl  fij(^cn,  jagcn,  he  has  gone  afishing,  ahunt< 
ing;  er  ift  fifii^en  gewefen,  he  has  been  afishing.  With  all  the  verbs  sub  3  and  several 
sub  2  the  present  participle  was  once  the  rule  in  older  German.  Compare  the  partici- 
ple in  the  predicate,  294,  2. 

b.  After  fu^Icn,  i^oren,  Iaffen,fe:^ett  the  infinitive  has  either  passive  or  active  force, 
and  often  an  ambiguity  arises  which  should  be  avoided  by  a  diflferent  construction. 
2Btr  ^aUn  e8  fagen  ^oren,  We  have  heard  it  said.  ®le  ®ogge  la^t  ft(^  tii^t  neden,  The 
bulldog  will  not  be  teased.  2Bir  ^oren  ben  Jlnaben  tufen,  calling  and  called  (generally 
the  first).  ®er  So^nfutfc^et  lie^  un8  nt^t  fasten,  the  hackman  did  not  let  us  go,  did  not 
allow  us  to  drive,  did  not  have  us  driven,  ®cr  SlJJeiftei;  lie^  bie  SEoc^ter  iti^t  malen,  did 
not  allow  her  to  paint  and  did  not  have  her  portrait  painted. 

4.  As  subject  or  predicate  with  feirt  and  "^cigen,  to  be,  to 
amount  to  :  ^06^  ei'nirwl  ein  Sunber  ^offen  ^ie§e  ®ott  ijerfucfeen 
(Sch.).     Sin  33ergnugen  ermarten  ift  auc^  ein  SSergniigen  (Le.). 

The  Infinitive  with  gu* 

291.  1.  It  expresses  the  purpose  of  an  action  and  in  gen- 
eral the  indirect  object ;  also  necessity  and  possibility  after 
neuter  verbs,  e.  g.,  fein,  Heiben,  fte^en,  when  it  has  passive  force. 
Die  (Sacbe  ift  nidjt  ju  dnbern.  (£g  6IeiBt  nod^  ijtel  ju  tlmn.  T)ag  fteljt 
noc^  gu  itberlegen*  X)a  treibt^^  i^n,  Den  !oftIi^en  ^rei^  gu  ertuerben 
(Sch.). 

This  is  the  old  and  proper  use  of  the  infinitive,  originally  a  noun  in 
the  D.  governed  by  ju.  In  N.  H.  G.  urn  was  added  to  express  purpose, 
but  it  was  really  superfluous,  though  common  in  the  spoken  language. 
Urn  bie  ©tromung  abjuUiten  gruben  fie  ein  frifc^e^  S3ettc  (Platen).    2Bir  leben  nic^t 


292]  SYiq^TAX   OF  THE  VERB — Ii;rFINITIVE.  115 

urn  ju  effen,fonbern  wtr  effen  urn  ju  lekn.  The  force  of  ju  was  much  weakened 
when  urn  could  thus  be  added.  Besides  urn,  anf^att  and  o^ne  can  precede 
ju  :  anflatt  n^eg  ju  laufen,  fam  ber  33ar  im^er  ^eran.  D§ne  fic^  umjufe^cnjief  ber 
T)kh  ba»on.  But  «um"  should  never  be  used  except  to  express  purpose. 
It  is  used  too  frequently.     See  sub  4. 

2.  It  stands  as  direct  object  of  verbs,  often  preceded  by,  or 
in  apposition  to,  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adverb  +  preposi- 
tion.    Ex. :  ^ang  an  ju  ^acfen  unt)  gu  graben  (F.  2355).    9^iemanli 

In  older  periods  of  the  language  there  was  no  ju  in  this  case. 

3.  It  stands  as  subject,  in  the  spoken  language,  more  fre- 
quently than  without  gu ;  there  is  no  choice,  d^efd^rtic^  ift^^  t)tn 
Sen  su  mdm  (Sch.).  Sine  fc^bne  ^enfi^enfeele  ftnten  ift  ®en?inn 
(He.). 

4.  As  adjunct  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  the  latter  often  being 
qualified  by  gu  and  genug,  ^IDie  ^unft  ft^  kliefetsu  madden."  3" 
ftofj,  Datt!  einjuernten,  m  ic^  i^n  nt(^t  fdete  (Le.).  X)u  wdreft  Hint 
genug,  t)a^  ntc^t  einjufe^n  ?  *  ♦  ♦  33ereit,  Mr  ^ur  ®efellf(^aft  l)ier  gu 
Heiben  (F.  1431). 

After  adjectives  «um  ju"  is  now  far  more  common  than  ju  alone.  3^ 
Vm  JU  alt,  urn  nur  ju  ^pidtn,  ju  jung,  urn  o^nc  2Bunf(^  ju  fein  (F.  1546-7).  Quite 
rare  is  aU  ju  +  infinitive. 

5.  For  the  independent  use  of  infinitive,  see  imperative,  287,  1. 
With  or  without  ju  in  elliptical  expressions  :  2Ba(J  t^m,  fprt(^t  3eu^  (Sch.). 
S©a0,  am  Dlanb  bc^  (^xaU  ju  liigen !  (F.  2961). 

AcCUSA'nVE   WITH   THE  INFINITIVE. 

292.  In  this  construction  the  logical  subject  of  the  infini- 
tive stands  in  the  accusative.  The  infinitive  stands  with  or 
without  JU.  Ex.:  ^ier  rtt^et  ?0^arttn  gaulermann,  menn  ntan  ten 
ru^en  fagen  !ann,  ber  fetnen  Se&tag  ntc^t^  get^an  (Weckherlin,  quoted 
by  Blatz).    ?itgen,  Me  man  Sitgen  ju  fein  mi^  (Le.). 

1.  Accusative  with  infinitive  was  not  rare  in  O.  H.  G.  in  the  translations  from  Latin 
and  Greek.    It  is  largely  due  to  foreign  influence.    In  M.  H.  G.  it  is  very  rare.    In 


116  SYNTAX   OF  THE   VERB — PARTICIPLES.  [293- 

modern  German  it  is  discouraged  by  the  best  authorities,  though  Lessiag  uses  it  quite 
frequently. 

2.  The  corresponding  English  constractions  must  therefore  be  rendered  freely  into 
German.  I  believe  him  to  be  my  friend,  3c^  glaulje  ha^  er  mein  greunb  ifi  or  3c^  ^alte  i^n 
fur  meinen  greunb.    German  loses  thus  a  compact  construction. 

The  Infinitive  as  a  Noun. 

293.  Some  infinitives  are  felt  as  nouns  only,  e.  g.,  bag  Seben, 
tad  ^2tnfet)en,  ta^J  SeiDen,  The  infinitive  used  as  noun  generally 
has  the  article.  Va^  S^laud^en  ift  ()iev  i?erboten.  Seim  Uberfe'^en 
mu^  man  Ms  an'g  Uniiberfe'^Iic^e  ^erangel)n  (G. ).  Der  dvhn  S3einen 
ift  tin  ^eimlidj  Sac^en  (Prov.). 

Participles. 

294.  The  participles  are  really  adjectives  derived  from 
verbal  stems.  The  present  participle  retains  more  of  the 
verbal  construction  and  force  than  the  past,  in  which  the 
idea  of  tense  only  appears  in  intransitive  verbs. 

The  present  participle  has  active  force  in  all  verbs  and  the 
noun  is  the  subject  of  the  action,  ^er  la^elnbe  @ee,  tie  auf^ 
ge^ente  (Sonne,  tag  fc^lagente  SBetter,  "fire-damp."  Both  parti- 
ciples can  be  used  as  nouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  very 
much  as  in  English.  They  stand  in  apposition,  in  the  predi- 
cate and  as  attributes. 

1.  Participles  in  which  the  noun  is  not  the  subject  of  the  action,  and  those 
in  which  lies  passive  rather  than  active  force,  are  still  current,  but  not  so 
frequent  as  in  early  N.  H.  G.  They  are  not  generally  countenanced,  e.  g. , 
Ui  fc^lafenber  ^adjt,  "  at  night  time,"  "  when  everybody  sleeps  "  ;  cine  fti^cnbe 
Sekn^art,  a  sedentary  habit  of  life  ;  effcnbe  SBaaren,  eatables  (better  ©§== 
waaren);  eine  \)or^atenbe  9leife,  an  intended  journey.  Some  of  these  can  be 
defended:  fa^renbe  ^aU,  movables,  chattels  (intrans.  verb);  erflaunenbe 
9?a(^ric^t,  astonishing  news  (trans,  verb) ;  eine  meltenbe  ^u^  (intrans.  like 
„militen");  bie  reitenbe  9)ofl,  postman  on  horseback.  Poetic  are  ber  fc^win^ 
belnbe  %tU,  the  giddy  rock.    S5on  bed  ^aufed  jpeitfc^auenbem  ®tekl  (Sch.). 

2.  In  the  predicate  appear  now  only  such  present  participles  as  have  be- 
come regular  adjectives  :  ^ebeutenb,  important ;  rei?,enb,  charming  ;  ^inreipenb. 
ravishing ;  leibenb,  in  pain,  ill  health  ;  bringenb,  urgent.    See  274.  G. 


296]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB — PARTICIPLES.  117 

3.  In  apposition :  ^o(i)enb,  twie  au^  Dfen^  dta^tn,  glii^n  bie  iCiiftc  (Sch.). 
3^  empfange  fniecnb  bie^  ®ef(^en!  (id.). 

4.  Tlie  participial  clause  with  the  present  participle  is  only  in  very 
restricted  use  in  German  compared  with  English.  It  cannot  express  an 
action  preceding  or  followinjr  another  action,  a  cause,  purpose,  etc.  It 
has  usually  the  value  of  an  adjective  clause  and  can  often  be  explained 
as  in  apposition.  Der  ^xmt,  ftd)  an  nu(^  wenbenb,  fprac^:  ^akn  ©te  ?Diitleib, 
meiu  §err. 

295.  The  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  has  passive 
force  ;  that  of  a  verb  which  forms  its  compound  tenses  with 
fein  has  active  force:  ter  laukmfrdn^te  Seeder  (Sch.);  ta^  l)erge^ 
fit^rte  3?oI!  (id.) ;  tie  aBgefegelten  (Sd)iffe ;  ber  tur(^gefatlene  (unsuc- 
cessful) (£antita't. 

1.  But  not  all  verbs  that  have  fein  in  compound  tenses  can  be  thus  used ; 
the  participle  must  denote  the  state  produced  by  the  action  of  the  verb. 
2)ie  gefcgdten  ©d)iffe,  ber  gelaufene  i!nec()t  would  not  do.  !Der  entlaufenc  <SfIa»e 
means  "the  runaway  slave."  This  force  is  clear  from  the  origin  of  the 
compound  tense  with  fein  (see  273,  283). 

2.  Seemingly  a  large  number  of  past  participles  have  active  force,  but 
they  are  either  quite  wrong  or  they  can  be  explained  as  having  had  origi- 
nally passive  force.  Thus :  «Ungektet  i§t  man  nic^t"  (Gerok) ;  wungcgeffen  in 
SSette  ge^n"  are  as  wrong  as  their  English  equivalents:  One  does  not  eat 
unprayed,  go  to  bed  uneaten.  wSebient"  means  "  in  service,"  "invested 
with  an  office,"  hence  a  "servant,"  SSebienter.  wSSerbient,"  one  who  has 
merits,  Weil  er  ftd)  urn  etwa^  or  jentanb  »erbient  gemac^t  ^at;  einge6i(bet  means 
conceited,  taken  up  vrith  one's  self ;  ein  tierlogener  Wltn\^,  a  man  given  to 
lying ;  ijerfoffener  2)?enfc^»  given  to  drinking,  and  many  other  compounds 
with  X)ix~  :  ijerweinte  Slngcn,  eyes  red  with  weeping. 

a.  That  some  are  now  felt  as  having  active  force  cannot  be  denied,  else  the  wrong 
use  mentioned  could  not  have  sprung  up  :  gotts,  pflii^twevgeffcn,  forgetful  of  one's  duty, 
of  God ;  »eii(^lafen,  "  one  who  slept  too  long  " ;  »ermeffen,  "  presumptuous  "  ;  »evtegen, 
embarrassed  ;  besides  the  above. 

296.  The  peculiar  past  participles  of  verbs  of  motion, 
which  seemingly  have  active  force,  stand  in  a  sort  of  apposi- 
tion or  as  predicates  with  fommen,  rarely  with  gekn.  Ex. : 
^am  ein  33ogel  geflogen  (Song),  ^a  fommt  be^  2Beg^  geritten  ein 
f^mnder  (Sl)elfned)t  (Uh.). 


118  SYl^TAX   OF  THE  ADVEBB.  [297- 

1.  This  use  is  by  no  means  modern,  ^ommen  and  gelfen  are  felt  as 
auxiliaries.     Compare  tterloren  ge^en. 

2.  Special  notice  deserves  the  past  participle  with'  ^ei^ettf  fetn;  and 
nennen»  which  has  the  force  of  an  infinitive,  but  belongs  under  this  head. 
T)a^  ^eiit  f^lec^t  geworfen,  That  is  a  bad  throw.  Unter  e^rlid^en  Ceuten  nennt 
man  ba^  wgelogen,"    ^rifc^  sewagt  i|l  ^al&  gewonnen  (Prov.). 

297.  The  participle  appears  in  an  absolute  construction. 
The  logical  subject  is  left  indefinite  (Leasing  is  very  fond  of 
this).  The  logical  subject  stands  in  the  accusative  and  with 
a  few,  like  au^genommen,  eingef(^Iojfen,  aBgerec^net,  even  in  the 
nominative.  2ltle  maren  jugegen,  ter  ^farrer  au^genommen.  Unt) 
tiefe^  nun  auf  Saoloon  angetvenfcet,  fo  ift  tie  ©a(^e  Har  (Le.). 

1.  Closely  related  to  this  construction  is  the  absolute  accusative  +  a 
past  participle  (see  209)  and  in  some  cases  there  may  be  doubt  as  to 
which  is  meant.  Unb  jte  ftngt  |inau^  in  bie  ftni!ere  ^a^t,  ba^  Stuge  »on  Seinen 
gctriibet  (Sch.). 

The  past  participle  is  in  elliptical  construction  in  the  imperative,  see 

287,  3. 

The  Gerundivk 

298.  It  stands  only  attributively.  In  the  predicate  the  old 
infinitive  stands,  which  it  has  supplanted,  ^er  no^^i  ju  t>er- 
fanfenfce  ©^ran!,  the  wardrobe  which  is  still  to  be  sold;  but  feer 
©d^ranf  ift  nod)  ju  ^erfaufen,  the  wardrobe  is  still  to  be  sold. 
See  289,  452.     It  has  always  passive  force. 

Though  the  form  is  rather  that  of  the  gerund  than  of  the  gerundive,  in  construction 
it  closely  resembles  the  Latin  gerundive.    Hence  the  name  in  German. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   ADVERB. 

299.  The  adverb  qualifies  a  verb,  an  adjective  or  another 
adverb.  Ex.:  'Du  ^ajl  ntic^  mMtxQ  angegogen  (F.  483).  Die 
un&egreiflid^  ^o^^en  Serfe  jtnti  ^^errlii^  ttjie  am  erftcn  3:ag  (F.  249-50). 
Da^  ift  fe^r  fdjon  gefc^rieBen. 

1.  The  adverbs  of  time  and  place  often  accompany  a  noun  with  the 
force  of  an  attribute :  S3or  Senem  brokn  fte^t  getiirf t,  ber  ^elfen  le^rt  unb  ^ilfc 
fc^idt  (F.  1009-10).  ®eor9  V.  (ber  %m]U),  einjl  tiJnig  »on  ^annoDer,  flarb  im 
Slu^lanbc. 


3011  SYNTAX   OF  THE  PREPOSITION.  119 

2.  The  adverb  stands  as  a  predicate :  S)te  fd)onen  Betten  »on  Sfraniuej 
finb  nun  ijoriikr  (Scli.).  2)le  2;pr  tj^  ju  (one  can  supply  wQcmac^t'O'  S'er  or 
bent  9)lim'ller  i|l  nic^t  roo% 

a.  Do  not  confound  gut  and  reo^I.  Except  in  a  few  cases,  as  in  WD^l  t^un,  to  do 
good,  rao^l  does  not  qualify  a  transitive  verb.  We  do  not  say  in  German  ttJO^l  fdjvciten, 
uidI)I  antitJDvten,  wo^l  anfangen  in  the  sense  of  English  "  well."  Gr  t)at  e^  wdI^I  gefd^iteOcu 
means  "  he  wrote  it,  indeed,  (I  assure  you) "  ;  or  it  is  concessive  and  can  mean ;  "  to  be 
sure  he  wrote  it,  but  then  — ."    In  the  last  sense  loo^l  has  no  stress. 

3.  With  adjectives  or  participles  used  as  nouns  that  are  felt  rather  as 
substantives  than  as  adjectives  or  as  derived  from  a  verb,  the  adverb 
changes  to  an  adjective:  ein  m^  35erlDanbter  >  ein  nal)er  S^emanbter;  eln 
iutim  23e!annter  >  ein  intimer  SBefannter.  But  compare  Goethe's  famous  line : 
^a^  ewtg^SBeiMic^e  jic^t  un«  ^inan, 

300.  An  adverb  maj^  strengthen  the  force  of  a  preposition 
by  standing  before  or  after  the  preposition  +  case.  This  is 
always  the  case  when  the  adverb  is  the  j)refix  of  a  separable 
compound  verb:  ring^  urn  tie  ©tabt  (l)erum),  mitten  turd)  Un 
5ffialc,  in  Dag  Dorf  ^tnein,  am  tm  Garten  ^txan^.  (£g  ritten  trei 
9teiter  aum  Zijoxt  ^irtau^  (Uh. ). 

1.  Mark  the  adverbs  which  are  only  adverbs  and  not  adjectives  : 
wo^b  fai^>  f(^on,  fe^r,  mu\i^,  freilid^,  fru^  (rare),  f^jat  (rare),  Mb,  and  others. 

2.  The  uninflected  comparative  and  superlative  of  adjectives  serve 
also  as  adverbs.  Notice  the  difference  between  auf  +  A.  and  an  +  D. 
©ie  fangen  auf  ba<J  Befle  (Uh.),  they  sang  as  best  they  knew  how.  This  is 
absolute  superlative,  ©ie  fangen  am  kften,  they  sang  best  of  all,  any.  This 
is  relative  superlative. 


SYNTAX   OF   THE   PREPOSITION. 

301.  The  prepositions  express  the  relations  of  a  noun  to  a 
verb  or  to  another  noun. 

1.  Prepositions  are  originally  adverbs,  and  the  distinction  between  prepositions, 
adverbs  and  conjunctions  is  only  syntactical.  ®enn  is,  for  instance,  a  conjunction  = 
for,  and  an  adverb  =  then,  than  ;  wa^renb  is  a  conjunction  ==  while,  and  a  preposition 
=  during.  Prepositions  could  not  originally  "  govern  "  cases.  A  certain  case  was 
called  for  independently  of  the  preposition,  then  still  an  adverb.  In  Greek  there  are 
prepositions  governing  three  cases,  which  shows  how  loose  the  connection  between 
case  and  preposition  was.    In  fact  nearly  all  adverbs,  old  and  new,  can  be  traced  back 


120  SYKTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION — GENITIVE.  [302- 

to  cases  of  nouns  or  pronouns.  They  are  isolated  or  "  petrified"  cases,  and  as  such 
could  only  stand  in  the  loosest  connection  with  the  living  cases,  which  they  gradually 
began  to  "govern." 

2.  Prepositions  can  govern  different  cases  in  different  periods  of  the  language. 
The  preposition  has  been  partly  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  case-endings.  Its  function 
becomes  the  more  important  the  more  uninflectional  (analytical)  a  language  becomes. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  subtle  elements  to  master  in  the  study  of  a  living 
language.  For  another  reason  the  preposition  is  very  important,  viz.,  the  preposition 
+  case  has  supplanted  and  is  continuing  to  supplant  the  case  alone,  directly  dependent 
upon  a  verb  or  noun.  The  two  together  are  much  more  expressive  and  explicit  than 
a  case  alone.  In  ©ie  SieBc  be§  95ater8,  the  genitive  may  be  subjective  or  objective,  but 
there  is  no  ambiguity  about  bie  Sicbe  jum  SSater,  beS  SSaterg  Stebe  jum  ©o:^ne. 

Classification  and  Treatment  of  the  Prepositions  According 
TO  THE  Cases  they  Govern. 

302.    Prepositions  governing  the  Genitive: 

Unmit,  mitkU,  !raft  unt  njci^rent);  laut,  ijermocie,  ttngea^tet;  oBer? 
^dB  itttt)  unter^alB;  inner^alb  itnt>  auger^alB;  tie^feite,  jenfeit^,  ^alhn, 
ttjegen;  ftatt,  an6!)  Idng^,  sufolge,  troj* 

These  are  all  cases  of  substantives  or  adjectives  (participles)  and  their 
number  might  be  easily  increased,  e.g.,  by  bejuglic^,  with  reference  to  ; 
angeftc^t^,  in  the  face  of;  feitensS,  on  the  part  of  ;  inmitten,  in  the  midst  of, 
etc. 

(The  order  is  the  one  in  which  they  are  given  in  German  grammars.  The  semicolon 
shows  the  ends  of  the  lines  of  the  doggerel.) 

We  comment  in  alphabetical  order  briefly  upon  those  that  seem  to  require  comment. 
Often  a  mere  translation  will  suffice. 

1.  Slnjlatt,  an  — flat t,  ftatt,  +  instead  of.  2)rau^  (from  which, 
from  whose  breast)  ftatt  ber  golbemn  Cicber  ein  SBIutftra^l  ^od)  auf  fpnn9t(Uh.). 
Sin  Xo^itx  ftatt,  in  daughter's  stead.  (Statt  sometimes  with  the  dative.  It 
also  governs  an  infinitive  like  o^ne,  translated  by  "  without  +  participle." 
See  Infinitive,  291,  1. 

2.  Sluicr^aU  +  outside  of;  inner^aU  +  inside  of;  oBerl^aU, 
above;  unter'^alb,  on  the  lower  side  of,  below.  They  are  all  more 
expressive  than  the  simple  forms.     They  rarely  govern  the  dative. 

3.  ©  i  c  6  f  e  1 1  («),  i  e  n  f  e  i  t  (^),  this  side  of,  on  the  other  side,  beyond. 
Rarely  with  the  dative. 

4.  ^  a  U  e  n,  ^  a  U  e  r,  1^  a  U,  on  account  of,  +  in  behalf  of.    Follows 


302]  STiq-TAX  OF  THE   PREPOSITION — GENITIVE.  121 

its  case.  Frequent  in  composition :  ht^f)ai^,  therefore  ;  meinet^alkn,  on  my 
behalf;  5llter<3  l^alUx,  on  account  of  age.     Comp.  wegen  and  willen. 

5.  ^raft,  according  to,  by  virtue  of.  ^raft  be^,  ©efe^e^  ;  fraft  bc^ 
5(mte^.  Formerly  only  in  ^raft,  e.g.,  ha^  jleta  ber  liebjle  (©o^n)  .  ♦  ♦  in  ^raft 
nttcin  bei3  ^ing^,  ba^  ^aupt,  ber  ^itrfl  be^  ^aufe^  njerbe  (Le.).    Comp.  laut. 

(?.  2 ant,  from,  „m^  Saut,"  Uut^  (Luther),  means  "according  to,' 
"by."  Caut  SSefe'^t^,  by  command  ;  laut  be^  Seflamente^,  according  to  the 
last  will  and  testament. 

Plural  nouns  without  articles  in  which  the  genitive  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished stand  in  the  dative  :  laut  S3riefeit,  according  to  letters.  2aut 
means  literally  according  to  a  verbal  or  written  statement ;  fraft  gives  a 
moral  reason. 

7.  Wilt  til  ^,  mitteljl  (most  common),  »erm  it  telft,  by  means  of, 
with.  ?S)?itteIjl  eitte<3  ^ammtx^,  mt^  93o^rer<3,  It  is  more  expressive  than 
niit  or  burc^.     Rarely  with  the  dative. 

8.  D  h,  rare  and  archaic.  With  genitive  if  causal  (on  account  of) ; 
with  dative  if  local  (above),  and  temporal  (during).  2)a  tDeinteit  jufammen 
bie  ©reitabter^  wo^l  c6  ber  flaglic^en  ^unbe  (Heine).  Dl)  bent  2BaIb;  nib  bem 
SBalb  (Sch.,  Tell);  el  bem  Slltare  (id.). 

9.  3;  r  0  ^,  with  genitive  and  dative,  in  defiance  of,  in  spite  of  ;  in  the 
sense  of  "in  rivalry  with,"  "as  well  as,"  always  with  the  dative.  %xoi) 
be^  ^eftigen  9legen^  fu^ren  ti)ir  a\u  !l)te  ©angerin  fingt  tro^  einer  9'?ad)tigatt,  as 
well  as  a  nightingale.  Comp.  the  forms  ^u  or  jum  Xxo^t  preceded  by  a 
dative  :  Wix  jjum  Xxci^t  fu^x  er  fort  ju  lefen/  in  defiance  of  me  or  to  defy  me 
he  continued  reading. 

10.  U n a n g e f  e ^ e Uf  setting  aside,  unBefc^abet,  without  detriment  to, 
u  n  g  e  a  d)  t  e  t,  notwithstanding  (very  frequent).  The  last  two  also  with  a 
preceding  dative ;  bemungeac^tet  is  felt  as  an  adverb.  These  are  very 
modern  prepositions.  Unwett,  unferU/  not  far  from,  occur  also  with 
dative. 

11.  2[J  e  r  nt  b  g  e,  in  virtue  of.  through,  in  consequence  of,  by  dint  of. 
Denotes  a  reason  springing  from  a  quality  of  the  subject:  ^ermoge  feiner 
Oiebltc^fett,  through  his  honesty.  We  could  not  say  fraft  feiner  9i. ;  uermoge 
(and  not  fraft)  grower  ^Cnjlrengungen,  by  dint  of  great  efibrts.  (Perhaps  from 
,m^  S^ermogen.") 

12.  SB  a  :^  r  e  n  b,  during.  Sometimes  with  the  dative  :  tt)a^renbbem# 
meanwhile. 

13.  SB  e  g  e  n,  on  account  of,  both  preceding  and  following  the  noun ; 


122  SYKTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION— DATIVE.  [303- 

a}so  with  the  dative.     SBegen  denotes  also  a  motive  and  an  impediment. 

Seiner  ®ro§e  ttjegen  Umk  ba^  ©(^iff  m(^t  burc^  ben  ^anaU  !Der  3)?uller  war 
a?egcn  [einer  ©tarfe  krii^mt.  SBegen  from  Don  —  tuegen,  still  common  in  „i)Ott 
S'tecltiS  iuegen,"  strictly,  injustice. 

14  2B  i  n  e  n,  generally  u  nt  —  »  i  U  e  n,  denotes  the  purpose,  the  ad- 
vantage or  interest  of  a  person.  Urn  meiner  9?u^e  tuitten  erflaren  ©te  ft(i) 
kutlidjer  (Sch.).  Urn  be^  ©o^ne^  wttten,  urn  meinetmillen,  for  the  sake  of  or  in 
the  interest  of  the  son,  for  my  sake.  SBegen,  f^alhtn,  and  tx>itten  all  appear 
with  pronouns,  and  are  used  promiscuously. 

15.  3  u  f  0  I  ge,  as  frequently  with  the  dative,  denotes  the  result,  "  in 
consequence  of."  Bufolge  be^  Sfuftrage^,  in  consequence  of  the  commission ; 
feen  SSera&rebungen  iufolge,  in  accordance  with  the  verbal  agreements. 

Prepositions  governing  the  Dative. 

303.  @c^rei6:  mit,  nac^,  nai^ft,  tteBft,  famt;  feit,  ijon,  ju,  pxtoi'ux; 
entgegcn,  au^er,  an^  —  flet^  mit  bem  X)ati»  nieter. 

1.  51  b,  stili  used  in  the  Alemanic  dialect  (Baden,  Switzerland)  as  a 
preposition.  In  business  style  it  denotes  the  place  at  which  merchan- 
dise is  delivered  or  the  time  after  which  anything  is  to  be  had  :  db  ^am^ 
burg,  ah  9?euia^r,  ah  =  ''all  aboard." 

2.  51  u  ^  denotes  the  starting  point  of  a  motion,  the  opposite  of  in  + 
accusative,  =  "out  of,"  "from":  5lue  ben  Slngen,  an^  bem  ©inn,  "out  of 
sight,  out  of  mind " :  ftu^  bent  ^enfler  fe^en,  to  look  out  of  the  window. 
Origin  and  descent :  aui  alten  QtiUw,  from  olden  times ;  avii  ^anwotx, 
from  Hanover.  Material :  ftu^  2(^m,  of  clay  ;  au^  ?We^I,  of  meal.  Motive  : 
aua  5)?itletb,  ^ap,  from  pity,  hatred.  Origin  also  in  au^  ©rfa^rung,  from 
experience ;  au^  3[Jerfe^en,  by  mistake.  Notice  the  idiom  :  au^  ^oln  geMrtig, 
a  native  of  Cologne,  born  in  C. 

3.  51  u  §  e  r,  outside  of,  beside,  the  opposite  of  in  +  dative.  Denotes 
also  exception  and  "  in  addition  to."  More  frequent  in  the  figurative  than 
in  the  local  sense,  because  au§er^Ib  is  more  precise.  5(uper  bem  ^aufe,  not 
at  home  ;  au§er  |)aufe  fpeifen,  to  dine  out ;  aupcr  jid)  fein,  to  be  beside  one's 
self.  9?ur  ber  SJetter  toax  auper  mir  ba.  Mark  once  the  genitive  au^er  Canbe^ 
gef)en,  to  go  to  foreign  parts;  also  the  accusative  in  nuBer  atlcn  Stoeifel  fetjcn, 
put  beyond  all  doubt,     (©e^en  being  a  verb  of  motion.) 

4.  S3  c  i.  Original  meaning  is  nearness,  hence  by,  near,  with  :  Ux  bcr 
^^e^eune,  near  (by)  the  barn ;  bet  ber  3:ante,  near  the  aunt  or  at  the  house  of 


303]  SYiq'TAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION — DATIVE.  123 

the  aunt ;  ktm  B^n^t  by  Jove  ;  bie  (B6)la^t  M  2Bort^,  the  battle  of  W.  ;  feci 
3:ifc^  fetn,  to  be  at  dinner  ;  feet  %aQ  unb  feei  9ta(fit,  by  day  and  by  night ;  feci 
(einem)  5tamen  nennen,  to  call  by  name  (but  ^^riebridi  m  1 1  '^amtn,  Frederic 
by  name) ;  feei  (rare)  neunjtg  ®efangenen,  about  ninety  prisoners ;  feet  <Strafc 
»on  jc^n  Mart,  ten  marks  fine.  3d)  ^afee  h'm  ®elb  feei  mix,  I  have  no  money 
about  me.  The  accusative  stands  in  feei  (Seite  legen,  feringen,  jlellen,  to  lay, 
put  aside.  In  M.  H.  G.  after  verbs  of  motion  regularly  the  accusative, 
but  in  the  spoken  language  now  discarded,  though  still  found  in  the 
classics. 

5.  93  i  tt  n  e  ti;  sometimes  with  genitive,  expresses  now  time  only, 
"  within  "  :  feiitnen  bret  3a|ren,  within  three  years.     <b6  —  innen. 

6.  (£  n  t  g  e'  g  e  It  denotes  approach,  both  friendly  and  hostile,  towards 
and  against ;  stands  generally  after  its  case.  SBir  giitgen  bent  f^reunbe  ent^ 
gegen;  ful^rett  bent  2Binbe  entgegen.  With  verbs  of  motion  it  frequently  forms 
separable  compounds  and  is  really  more  adverb  than  preposition. 

7.  ®  e  g  e  n  u'  fe  e  r,  opposite,  facing  ;  generally  after  its  case ;  rarely 
gegcn  —  itfeer.    !£)ent  ©c^Ioffe  gegenitfeer. 

8.  ®  e  nt  a  pf  preceding  and  following  its  case,  according  to,  in  accord- 
ance with  ;  really  an  adjective.  T)tm  S5erfprec^en  gemd|,  according  to  the 
promise;  gema§  bem  ®efe^e,  according  to  the  law.  It  is  more  definite 
than  nac^. 

9.  ii)l  i  t  means  "in  company  with,"  "with";  denotes  presence,  ac- 
companying circumstances  and  instrument.  %xm  in  5lrm  ntit  bir,  fo  forbore 
id)  nteitt  Sa^r^unbert  in  bie  ©c^ranfen  (Sch.).  ?JWit  ^reuben,  gladly;  eile  mi 
2Betle,  hasten  slowly;  mit  ^^ug  unb  9ie^t,  justly  (emphatic) ;  ntit  ber  3eit 
Ijfliitft  man  Otofen,  in  due  time  .  .  .  ;  ntit  %\i\^,  intentionally  ;  mit  bem  9)frit# 
bem  SBogen  (Sch.).    (See  mittel^,  302,  7.) 

10.  9?a  (^  denotes  originally  a  "  nearness  to,"  being  an  adjective  (na^c); 
then  "a  coming  near  to,"  and  generally  corresponds  to  Eng.  "after"  in 
point  of  time,  order.  With  verbs  of  motion  (literal  and  figurative)  "  to  " 
and  "  after."  9la(^  etn?a^  jlrefeen,  fid)  fefenen,  to  strive  after,  long  for ;  nac^  SJJtt" 
ternac^t ;  nad^  bir  fomme  \^,  it  is  my  turn  after  you ;  nac^  33erlin  reifen.  *'  In 
accordance  with,"  not  so  expressive  as  „gemaf,"  in  this  sense  often  after 
its  case.  ^Ja^  ben  Oefe^en  »erbient  er  ben  Xob;  bem  SBortlaute  nac^,  literally. 
Aim:  nac^  etwa^  fc^tagen,  fd)ie§en,  to  strike  at,  shoot  at.  9?ac^  etwaiS  fd)me(!enf 
ried)enf  etc.,  something  has  the  smell,  taste  of;  nad)  etwa^  urteilen,  to  judge 
by ;  m^  etwasJ  or  iemanb  fi^itfen,  to  send  for.    (See  ju  and  gemap.) 


124  SYKTAX   OF   THE   PREPOSITIOI?^ — DATIVE.  [303- 

11.  S"?  a  c^  j!  is  the  superlative  of  na^e  (nac()),  and  denotes  very  close 
nearness  to  in  place,  order,  =  +  "  next  to."    3unad)ft  lias  no  different  force. 

Unb  nciclfl  bem  Cekn  toa^  erfle^fl  bu  bir?  (G.). 

13.  9?  e  ^  fl  denotes  very  loose  connection  and  connects  also  things 
and  persons  not  necessarily  belonging  together;  \amt,  on  the  other  hand, 
only  what  naturally  belongs  together.  Stuf  einer  Stange  trdgt  fie  cinen  -^ut 
nctjl  einer  ^a'^ne  (Sch.)  (a  hat  and  a  banner).     <  ne^enj!  <  L.  G.  nevens. 

13.  ^am t,  ntit  famt,  ^u  famt,  " together  with."  Qjjic^  [^ntt  meinem  gan^en 
^eere  ttring^  ici)  bem  ^erjog  (Sch.).  See  nebjl.  It  implies  a  close  union,  which 
does  not  lie  even  in  ntit. 

14.  (Set  t,  older  ftnt;  =  +  since,  denotes  the  beginning  of  an  action  and 
its  duration  to  the  present  moment.  <Bdt  biefem  Slage  fd)n'>et9t  ntir  jeber 
5S)?unb  (Sch.).  ©r  ij^  herein  felt  nte"^reren  ©tunben  (id.),  it  is  several  hours  since 
he  came  in  (into  the  city),  ©ett  einigen  Sft^ren  ja^lt  er  feine  3infen,  For  sev- 
eral years  he  has  paid  no  interest. 

15.  ^  on,  "  from,"  denotes  the  starting  point  of  a  motion  or  action  in 
time  and  place.     Its  case  is  often  followed  by  another  preposition  or  by 

kr.  ©on  ber  ^anb  in  ben  9)?unb;  i»on  SBorten  fam'i3  in  Sc^tagen,  from  words 
they  came  to  blows.  S3on  Djlern  bit^  9)ftngften  ijl  fitnfjig  Slage.  Origin : 
Saltt)er  ijcn  ber  S^ogelweibe.  ^^itrft  »on  SSt^mard.  ^err  »on  ©c^ulemburg. 
Hence  »on  in  the  names  of  persons  denotes  nobility  :  ^err  i)on  ©o  ttnb  ®0. 
2Jon  Sugenb  auf;  »on  ®runb  au<3,  thoroughly  ;  »on  Dj^en  '^er.  Separation  : 
fret,  rein  »on  ettva^.  Supplants  the  genitive  :  ein  ^am  i3on  ©^re,  »on  gro^en 
^enntniffen  ;  ber  ^'oM  »on  9)arii3.  Denotes  the  personal  agent :  Sattcnjlein 
tvurbe  i)on  9)tccolomini  ^intergangen  unb  yon  titelen  ©eneralen  im  (Sttc()e  (in  the 
lurch)  gelaffen.  Notice :  (B^uxU  Jjon  einem  9Birt  (Le.).  Cause :  na^  ttom 
(with)  %au,  »om  0tegen. 

16.  Bn  denotes  first  of  all  the  direction  toward  a  person  (but  nac^ 
toward  a  thing)  +  "to":  p  jemanb  ge'^en,  fomnten,  fprec^en,  etc.  @ie  fang  ju 
t^nt,  fte  fpra^  ju  i^m  (G.).  3u  ftc^  fommen,  "come  to"  ;  etwa^  ju  fic^  fiecEen,  to 
put  something  in  one's  pocket.  (This  is  its  only  use  in  O.  H.  G.  In 
M.  H.  G.  its  use  spread.)  In  dialect  and  in  poetry  it  stands  before  names 
of  cities  and  towns  (=  at).  3u  ©tra^urg  ftuf  ber  ©(i)anj  (Folk-song).  3^r 
feib  ntetn  ®afl  ju  <B^mi  (Sch.). 

In  certain  very  numerous  set  phrases  and  proverbs  ^it  stands  before 
names  of  things.  Direction:  »on  Drt  JU  Drt,  from  place  to  place  ;  ju 
S3ett(e),  jur  ^ird^e,  jur  ©^ule,  ju  ®runbe,  ju  0iate  ge'^en  =  "  take  council " ; 


304]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION" — ACCUSATIVE.  125 

many  loose  compounds  with  fasten;  p  %aU,  ju  (Statten,  ju  <S^aben,  ju  (£nbc, 
ju  ©^ren  fommen;  ju  ©c^anben,  ju  9iic^te,  jum  ©c^elnte  werben. 

Place  where  ? :  ^ju  kibeit  ©eiten  be<3  9f{^ein$"  (Song) ;  ju  ^aufe,  jur  ^anb 
fein;  ju  Siipen  liegen.  Manner  of  motion:  jit  Sanb,  ju  SBaffer,  ju  9)ferb  (i^u 
Uo^),  ju  aSagen,  ju  ^u§  =  Eng.  "by"  and  "on."  Transition  or  change  : 
juin  ^bnig  mac^en,  wa^len,  ernennen  ;  jum  9iarren,  jum  fceflen  :^akn,  to  make  a 
fool  of.  Degree  or  size,  numbers  :  jum  %nl,  in  part ;  ju  ^t^unberteit;  by  the 
hundred ;  ju  breien  n^aren  ix»ir  im  3tmmer,  there  were  three  of  us  in  the 
room  ;  jum  Zoht  bttxixH  (G.),  sad  unto  death.  Combination  of  things  : 
9?e'^men  ©ie  nie  SJfeffer,  ©atj  ober  ©enf  ju  (with)  bem  (£t?  Dft  ^atf  er  faum 
Staffer  ju  ©d)Warjbrot  unb  SSurfl  (BU.).  Notice  the  use  of  ju  before  nouns 
followed  by  ^inein,  ^erau^,  etc.:  jum  3;^ore  l§inaui3;  jum  ^enjler  ^erau(^.  Time 
(rare) :  Unb  fommt  er  ntc^t  ju  Oflerit,  fo  fommt  er  ju  Slrinita't  (Folk-song).  After 
the  noun  =  "in  the  direction  of,"  "toward":  bem  2)orfe  ya,  toward  the 
village  ;  m<^  bem  1)orfe,  to  the  village. 

Prepositions  governing  the  Accusative: 

304.    33i^,  turd),  fitr,  gegeit,  o^ne,  fontier,  um,  n?iter* 

1.  93  i  ^,  till,  until,  denotes  the  limit  in  time  and  space.  When  denot- 
ing space  it  is  followed  by  other  prepositions,  except  before  names  of 
places.  The  nouns  of  time  rarely  have  an  article  or  pronoun.  33l<3  ^a|i=^ 
nac^t ;  li^  an^  ©nbe  aller  TiinQc  ;  M^  ^ier^er  unb  ni(^t  wetter  ;  U^  an  ben  ^eflen 
%aQ ;  neunjtg  Vi^  ^unbert  SJZarf;  bi^  a3Taunfc^n)etg.  (35ie  <bi  +  a^,+  Eng. 
by  +  at.) 

2.  !l)urd),  +  "  through,"  denotes  a  passing  through  :  burd)  ben  9Balb, 
bur(i)^  9?abeIo^r.  Extent  of  time  (the  case  often  followed  by  ^inburd)): 
burc^  Sci^rje^nte  l^inburc^ ;  bie  ganje  3eit  (^in)bur(^.  Cause  and  occasion,  very 
much  like  au^  :  burc^  ^fJac^tafftgfeit,  burd)  eigene  ©c^ulb.  Means:  burc^  einen 
9)feil  ttertDunben,  bur(|  einen  ©ienflmann  kforgen,  attend  to  through  a  porter. 
(Durc^  more  definite  than  mit*  See  this  and  mittel^.  It  denotes  now  no 
longer  the  personal  agent.) 

3.  ^  u  r,  +  for,  denotes  advantage,  interest,  destination  :  2Ber  nic^t  fur 
mic^  i%  if!  wiber  mid)  (B.).  (£r  fammelt  fur  bie  5lrmen.  Die  ©c^eere  \\i  fein  ©^)iel== 
jeug  fiir  ^inber.  !Dte  2Ba^r^ett  ift  »or^anben  fiir  ben  Sffieifen,  bie  ©c^on^eit  fiir  ein 
fu^Ienb  ^txi  (Sch.).  Substitution  and  price  :  ©a  tritt  fein  anberer  fiir  i^n  ein 
(Sch.).  mm  Mm  \\i  fiir  ©olb  ni^t  feil  (Bii.).  Limitation  :  3d)  fiir  meine 
9)erfon»  ©enug  fiir  biefe^  SD^aL  S^r  jeigtct  einen  fcden  Wlut  .  ♦  .  fiir  eure  Sa^re 
(Sch.).  <StU(f  fiir  ©tucf,  point  by  point.  In  its  old  sense  (local)  only  in 
certain  phrases  :  ©(^ritt  fiir  (by)  ©d)ritt,  Za^  fiir  (by)  Sag,  (Sa|  fiir  (after) 
^a^,    (See  ijor.) 


126  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION — ACCUSATIVE.         [304 

4.  ®  e  9  e  n  denotes  **  direction  toward,"  but  with  no  idea  of  approacli 
that  lies  in  ju  and  nac^.  It  implies  either  friendly  or  hostile  feeling  if 
persons  are  concerned  ="  towards,"  "against."  ®egcn  bie  5Bant)  Iet)nen; 
gegen  ben  ©trom  fc^wimmen.  SGBenn  ic^  mi^  gegen  fte  »crpfli(^teu  fott,  [o  muffen  fie'^ 
au^  gegen  mi(^  (Sch.).  ®lbt  e^  ein  3)?ittel  gegen  bie  (Sd)n)inbfud)t  ?  ®egen  !Dumm'= 
l^eit  fampfen  ©otter  felbf!  ijerge^en^.  Exchange,  comparison  :  35)  ii^ette  |)unbcrt 
gegen  ein^.  9?olanb  war  ein  ^n-^erg  gegen  ben  9itefen.  Indefinite  time  and  num- 
ber: **  towards."  2)er  ^ran!e  f(|lief  erft  gegen  SJforgen  ein.  !l)er  ^clb^err  I)atte 
gegen  brei^unbert  taufenb  ©olbaten.  ©egen  brei  U^r.  ©egen  once  governed  the 
dative  almost  exclusively  and  traces  of  it  are  still  found  in  Goethe. 

®  e  n  is  still  preserved  in  ^gen  ^intmeL"  ®en  <  gen  <  gein  <  gegen, 
+  again.     See  entgegen,  which  implies  a  mutual  advance. 

5.  D  ^  n  e,  "  without,"  the  opposite  of  wntit,"  ,M\."  Wl\i  Pber  o^ne  ^laufel, 
gilt  ntir  gleid)  (Sch.),  '*  With  or  without  reserve,  it  is  all  the  same  to  me." 
(Sin  9?itter  o^ne  ^ur^t  itnb  SlabeL  In  wo'^nebem"  is  a  remnant  of  the  D.  in 
M.  H.  G. ;  jttjeifel^o^ne  of  the  G.  occurring  after  the  M.  H.  G.  adverb  dne, 
from.  ©ttt)a(3  ij^  nid)t  o^ne,  there  is  something  in  it  (Coll.).  D^ne  in  Com- 
position, see  489,  3  ;  +  infinitive,  see  291,  1. 

6.  ©onber,  "without,"  is  now  archaic  except  in  set  phrases  like 
wfonber  ®lcid)cn/"  „fonber  Btveifel,"  "  without  compare,"  "  no  doubt,"  +  Eng. 
asunder.     Once  governed  the  accusative  and  genitive. 

7.  Urn,  "around,"  "  about."  Unb  bie  ©onne,  fte  ma  Ate  ben  wetten  9?itt  urn 
bie  SBelt  (Arndt).  Unb  urn  i^n  bie  ©ropen  ber  ^rone  (Sch.).  ^er  or  '^erum  often 
follows  the  case :  fm  einem  ^aIHrei(3  jlanben  urn  i^n  ^zx  fec^^  ober  jiekn  grope 
^onig^^ilber  (Sch.).  It  denotes  inexact  time  or  number:  Urn  9)?itternad)t 
begra'^t  ben  Seib  (Bii.).  Urn  brei  ^unbert  ^orer,  an  audience  of  about  three 
hundred.  (®egen  is  rather  "  nearly,"  um  means  more  or  less.)  But  «um 
brei^icrtet  funf'  means  "at  a  quarter  to  five."  "At  about"  would  be 
«ungcfal)r  um"  or  ,,um  ungefci^r,"  e.  g.,  ungefciBr  um  G  U|)r.  It  denotes  further 
exchange,  price,  difference  in  size  and  measure :  5lug^  um  Sluge,  3a^n  um 
3a^n  (B.).  5llte^  ijl  eud)  feil  um  ®elb  (Sch.).  Um  im\  3oIl  ju  flein.  ^r  |at 
ft'i^  um  imx  ^Jfennige  ijerrec^net.  Loss  and  deprivation  :  um"*^  Sekn  ^ringen,  to 
kill ;  wvcCi  ®elb  fommen,  to  lose  one's  money.  2)a  n)ar^(5  um  t^n  gefc^e^n  (G.), 
He  was  done  for.  SKer  ha(|te  mt(^  brum?  (um  beine  Siel)e)  (F.  4496),  Who 
robbed  me  of  it?  It  denotes  the  object  striven  for:  um  etlva^  werkn.- 
fpiclen,  fragen,  bitten,  flretten,  kneiben,  etc.  The  object  of  care,  mourning, 
weeping :  SBein^  um  ben  SBruber,  bod)  nid}t  um  ben  ©eltclnen  weine  (Sch.).  ©c^abe 
xoM^i  um  cure  ^aarc  (id.).    9?i(^t  um  biefe  t^ut^^  mir  leib  (id.). 


306]         THE   PREPOSITION^ — DATIVE  AND   ACCUSATIVE.  127 

8.  2B  i  b  e  r,  "  against,"  always  in  tlie  hostile  sense.  Denotes  resistance 
and  contrast :  2Ba^  ^ilft  m^  SBe^r  unb  SBaffe  tvtber  ben?  (Scli.).  <£«  Qc^t  i^m 
Wiber  bie  S'Jatur,  It  goes  against  his  grain.    +  Eng.  "with"  in  withstand. 


Prepositions  governing  the  Dative  and  Accusative. 

305.  ^In,  an],  l)inter,  in,  mhn,  ubcv,  unter,  »or,  jtvifc^en. 

1.  In  answer  to  the  question  whither  ?  they  require  the 
accusative.  In  answer  to  the  question  where?  the  dative, 
^flan^e  tie  53dume  ijor  ba^  ^m^.    Die  33dume  fte^en  ijor  bem  ipaufe. 

2.  In  answer  to  the  question  how  long  and  until  when  ? 
they  require  the  accusative.  In  answer  to  the  question  when  ? 
the  dative :  ^m  3ci^re  1872  \mxU  (Strafburg  mmx  aU  bcutfd)e 
Uniijerfttdt  eroffnet.     2Cir  reifen  auf  ^ier^e^n  S^age  in^  53at)» 

3.  When  an,  auf,  in,  iibcr,  unter,  i?or  denote  manner  and  cause, 
then  auf  and  iil^er  always  require  the  accusative,  but  an,  in,  unter, 
^or  generally  the  dative,  in  answer  to  the  questions  how  and 
why?  S3ir  freuen  un^  ixUr  {=  over)  and  auf  {=  looking  for- 
ward to)  feine  5ln!unft.  5luft)iefe  2Beifc,  but  in  biefer  SGeife, 
I)er  33ettler  tveinte  ijor  ^reuben  iiber  bie  ^errlii^e  ©abe. 

The  above  general  rules,  as  given  in  Krause's  grammar,  will  be  found  of  much 
practical  value. 

306.  1.  3tn  +  Dative. 

After  nouns  and  adjectives  of  plenty  and  want :  SJJangel  an  ®elb,  retc^  an 
®utern.  After  adjectives  when  the  place  is  mentioned  where  the  quality 
appears :  an  kiben  ^u§en  la^m,  an  einem  ^luge  Minb.  After  verbs  of  rest, 
increase  or  decrease,  and  after  those  denoting  an  immediate  contact 
or  a  perception :  %n  ber  Duelle  fa§  ber  ^nak  (Sch.).  (£0  fe^tt  an  33iid)ern. 
I)er  5lusJn)anberer  litt  am  SBeAfelftekr.  ^Der  Bigeuner  fii^rt  ben  S3aren  an  einer 
^ette.  2)en  SJogel  erfennt  man  an  ben  i^ebern  (Prov.).  It  denotes  an  oflBce 
and  time  of  day  :  am  Sweater,  an  ber  Itniioerjitat,  am  5lmte  angefleEt  fein,  to 
hold  an  office  at  ...  ;  am  ^ox^tn,  5l()enb ;  e^  ifl  an  ber  Qdt  ♦  ♦  . ,  it  is 
time  .... 


128       THE  PEEPOSITION — DATIVE  AND  ACCUSATIVE.        [306- 

2.  2ln  +  Accusative. 

After  benfen,  erinnern,  ma|nen  and  similar  ones,  and  verbs  of  motion. 
2)enfet  an  ben  0lu§m,  nic^t  an  bie  ®efa^r.  ©e^en  @ie  fid)  boc^  an^  genfter  (near 
the  window).  Inexact  number :  an  bie  brei  mal  ^unbert  taufenb  5Wann  (as 
many  as).  From  its  English  cognate  "on"  an  differs  very  mucli  in 
meaning.    "On"  generally  is  auf.     See  also  300,  2. 

3.  31  uf  +  "upon."  For  auf  +  Dative,  see  305,  1,  2,  3. 
It  denotes  rest  or  motion  upon  the  surface. 

2luf  +  Accusative. 

Stands  after  verbs  of  waiting,  hoping,  trusting,  etc.,  e.g.,  auf  etwa^ 
warten,  ^offen,  fid)  kftnnen  (recall),  gefa^t  fein,  fic^  freuen  (see  305,  3),  ijerjid)ten, 
(ea)  auf  etwai^  wagen,  "^oren.  Here  it  stands  generally  for  the  old  gen.  with- 
out preposition.  3c^  fi^nn  mid)  auf  bie  genauen  Umflanbe  ni(^t  beftnnen,  I  cannot 
recall  .  .  .  2)er  ^unb  wartet  auf  fein  ^reffen.  5P?erfe  auf  bie  SBorte  besS  Se^rer^. 
2;ro^t  nic^t  auf  euer  9ted)t  (Sch.).  After  adjectives  denoting  pride,  envy, 
anger,  malice,  e.g.,  eiferfii(|ti(j,  neibif(^,  jlolj,  bi)fe,  erI)of!:  eiferfiid)tt9  auf  feine 
e^re  (Sch.) ;  ftolj  auf  feine  Unfd)ulb;  erBofl  auf  ben  ©efangenen  (it^er  would  mean 
cause).  Exact  time,  limit,  and  measure  ;  often  with  «M^."  Here  belongs 
the  superlative,  see  300,  2.  33i^  auf^  33lut.  33i^  auf  (Speif^  unb  3:ranf 
(Le.).  ©^  ij!  ein  35iertel  auf  brei,  a  quarter  past  two.  Sluf  bie  9J?inu'te, 
(Sefu'nbe,  auf  ©c^u^weite,  at  shooting  distance.  S3i«  auf  bie  S'ieige,  to  the 
last  drop.  5luf  ftekn  fc^on  eine^  wieber  (Le,).  (Nathan  had  "  toward  "  or 
"  as  a  return  for  "  his  seven  dead  sons  one  child  in  Recha.)  5luf  eine  9)?arf 
gel^en  |uttbert  9)fennige. 

4.  ^  i  n  t  e  r  +  "  behind,"  opposite  of  „^or/'    See  305, 1, 2. 

It  denotes  inferiority  :  2)ie  franjijrtfd)e  ^frtilterie  fianb  Weit  Winter  ber  beutfc^en 
jurucf  (ambiguous,  either  stood  far  back  of  the  G.  or  was  much  inferior  to 
the  G.).  Notice  the  following  idioms  :  ftc^  Winter  ettt)a^  mad)en,  to  go  at  with 
energy.  3c^  fann  ni(^t  batiinter  fommen,  I  cannot  understand  it.  S^  l^inter 
ben  D^ren  ^akn,  to  be  sly  (coll.) ;  Winter  bie  Dl^ren  fc^lagen,  to  give  a  box  on 
the  ear  :  ftc^  etwa^  Winter  bie  D^ren  f^teikn,  to  mark  well. 

5.  3«  +  iii>  iiito  (-A..)- 

The  German  and  English  prepositions  are  more  nearly  identical  than 
any  other  two.    See  305,  1,  2. 


306]        THE  PKEPOSITIOI^ — DATIVE   AND   ACCUSATIVE.          129 

3n  +  Accusative. 

Denotes  direction,  including  transition,  change,  division :  SKenn  bcr 
2iib  in  ©taut  jerfallen,  lebt  ber  gro^e  9?ante  noc^  (Sch.).  2)eutf(^lanb  jerrip  auf 
biefem  9iei(^^tage  in  jwei  ^teUgio'nen  unb  jtvei  ^olitifc^e  9)artei'en  (id.). 

6.  91  e  b  e  n,  near,  by  the  side  of.  See  305,  1,2.  <  enehen, 
lit.  "in  a  line  with." 

7.  fiber  +  over,  above.     See  305,  1,  2,  3. 

ii&er  H-  Accusative. 

After  verbs  denoting  rule  and  superiority  over,  e.g.,  l^errfc^en,  ftegenf 
serfiigen  (dispose) ;  laughter,  astonishment,  disgust,  in  general  an  expres- 
sion of  an  affection  of  the  mind,  e.g.,  iiber  iixoa^  Iad)en,  erf^aunen,  fi(^  .  .  .  6e^ 
flagen^jic^  .  .  ♦  entriitleUf  ftc^  atgern.  (For  an  older  simple  genit.)  ^arlber®rc§e 
ftegte  u6er  bte  ©ac^fen.  ©a^  Sleflament  ^erfiigt  iikr  ein  grope*^  SSerntogen.  2Bie 
finite  ber  9)o&el  iiber  bie  neuen  Si^jre'en  (G.).  Die  ©efangenen  kflagen  ft^  iiber 
i^re  SBe^anblung.  Uber  fein  SSene^men  babe  tc^  mic^  re(|t  geargert.  It  denotes 
time  and  excess  in  time,  number,  measure :  Ukr^^  Sci^r,  a  year  hence, 
only  in  certain  phrases,  duration :  iikr  ^o^^i,  bie  S^Jac^t  ii&er.  ©en  <£at)()at^ 
itber  waren  fte  fiitte  (B.).  Ufcer  ein  3a^r,  more  than  a  year  (ambiguous, 
either  "more  than  a  year "  or  " a  year  hence  ").  Ukr  brei  taufenb  ^anonen. 
iikr  atte  SBegriffe  [d)on,  beautiful  beyond  comprehension. 

When  it  denotes  duration  or  simultaneousness,  or  when  the  idea  of 
place  is  still  felt,  then  the  dative  follows ;  when  it  denotes  the  reason 
then  the  accusative  follows.  This  is  clear  when  the  same  noun  stands 
in  both  cases,  as  in  3c^  Mn  iiber  bem  23u(|e  eingefc^Iafen/  means  "  while  reading 
it  I  fell  asleep."  3<|  kn  iikr  \)a^  S3u(^  etngefc^Iafen  means  "it  was  stupid, 
therefore  I  fell  asleep."  Ukr  ber  S3efd)ret6ung  ba  ijergeff  ic^  ben  ganjen  ^rieg 
(Sch.).  (Sd)abe,  bap  iikr  bem  fc^onen  2Ba§n  be^  Sekn^  kjle  ^alfte  ba^in  gel)t 
(Sch.). 

Notice  »on  etwa^  and  iikr  etn)a^  fpre(|en.  3c^  ^aBe  ba»on  gefpro(^en,  I  have 
mentioned  it.  3(^  |abe  bariikr  gef^jroc^en,  I  have  treated  of  it,  spoken  at 
length. 

8.  Unter  +  under.     See  305,  3. 

In  the  abstract  sense  this  rule  holds  good.  It  denotes  protection,  in- 
feriority, lack  in  numbers  (Dative,  opposite  of  it6er),  mingling  with,  con- 
temporaneous circumstance  (D.).  It  stands  for  the  partitive  genit. 
(=  among).  Unter  bem  ©(^u^e.  2)er  ^elbweBel  jle^t  unter  bem  Dfft.uer.  2Bcr 
Will  unter  bie  ©obaten,  ber  .  ♦  .  ,  he  who  wants  to  become  a  soldier  (Folk- 


130  SYNTAX   OF  THE   CONJUNCTIONS.  [306- 

song).  6r  ift  bruntcr  geBliekn,  he  did  not  reach  the  number.  Saml^rai 
offnete  feinem  ©r^Sifc^ofe  unter  (amid)  freubigem  Burufe  bie  Xi)oxt  wieber  (Sch.), 
SBer  unter  (among)  biefen  (D.)  reid)t  an  unfern  ^^rieblanb  ?  (Sch.)  (ijon  biefen  would 
be  "  of  these  "}.  It  denotes  time  wlien  none  of  the  exacter  modes  of  ex- 
pressing time  is  used  :  Sir  ftnb  getoren  unter  gletc^en  ©ternen  (Sch.).  Unter 
ber  Dlegierung  ber  ^ontgin  SJictoria  =  in  the  reign  ;  iva^renb  imp]ies  not  a  sin- 
gle act,  but  a  commensurate  duration,  =  during.  2)er  ©afrifta'n  fd)lief 
wci^renb  ber  ^Jrebigt,  but  ging  unter  ber  3)rebi9t  '^inau^.  In  „unterbeffen,«  and 
other  compounds  of  that  class,  inbeffeu/  etc.,  the  gen.  is  probably  adverbial 
and  not  called  for  by  the  preposition. 
See  5n)if(|en. 

9.  2$  0  r  +  before,  in  front  of.     See  305,  1,  2,  3. 
SSor  -f  Dative. 

Introduces  the  object  of  fear  and  abhorrence  ;  ^ein  ©ifengitter  f(i^u|t  i)or 
i^rer  Sif!  (Sch.).  25or  gen^iffen  ©rtnnerungen  m^V  ic^  mic^  gem  ^iiten  (id.).  9)?ir 
grant  »or  bir.  Time  before  which  anything  is  to  happen  or  has  happened : 
2)er  MmQ  tft  gefonnen,  "oox  5(benb  in  9)?abrib  nod)  einjutreffen  (Sch.).  SJor  breipig 
Sa^ren,  thirty  years  ago.  S5or  ac^t  2:agen,  a  week  ago.  Hindrance  and 
cause  :  Die  ©ropmutter  wirb  i>ox  Summer  f^erkn  (Sch.).  ©en  Salb  i)or  lauter 
SBaumcn  nid^t  fe^en  (Pro v.).  SJor  hunger,  vor  ®urfl  fterkn.  Preference  :  »or 
alien  !l)ingen,  above  all  things ;  |errltc^  »or  aUen. 

3? or  and  fur  are  doublets  and  come  from  fora  and  furi  respectively.  In 
M,  H.  Q.fur  +  A.  answered  the  question  whither?  wr  +  D.  the  ques- 
tion where  ?  In  N.  H.  G.  they  were  confounded,  even  in  Lessing  very 
frequently,  but  in  the  last  seventy  years  the  present  syntactical  difference 
has  prevailed.    Goethe  and  Schiller  rarely  confound  them. 

10.  Btuifc^en, 

"  Between  "  two  objects  in  place,  time,  and  in  the  figurative  sense.    0letn 

ntup  e^  Heikn  jttjifc^en  mir  unb  i^m  (Sch.).  2)ie  SBoIfenfauIe  fam  jwifc^en  ba^  ^ecr 
ber  5(g^^ter  unb  ba^  ^eer  S^rael^  (B.).  See  305, 1,  2  ;  also  unter  =  among, 
sub  8. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   CONJUNCTIONS. 

307.  The  conjunctions  are  divided  :  1.  Into  the  coordinat- 
ing, like  unb,  tenn,  etc. ;  2.  Into  the  subordinating,  e.  g.,  jveil, 
^a,  aU,  etc.  They  are  treated  in  the  General  Syntax,  where 
see  the  various  clauses. 


309]  GENERAL  SYKTAX — SIMPLE  SENTENCE.  131 

GENERAL   SYNTAX. 
I.    THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 

308.  Subject  and  verb  make  up  the  simple  sentence.  This 
sentence  may  be  expanded  by  complements  of  the  subject  and 
of  the  verb.  The  subject  may  be  either  a  substantive,  a  sub- 
stantive pronoun,  or  other  words  used  as  substantives.  The 
attributes  of  the  subjects  may  be  adjective,  participle,  adjec- 
tive pronouns,  numerals.  These  are  adjective  attributes. 
Substantives,  substantive  pronouns,  and  the  infinitive  are 
substantive  attributes.  Their  relation  to  the  subject  may  be 
that  of  apposition  and  of  coordination;  or  they  may  be  con- 
nected by  the  genitive,  or  by  preposition  +  case  in  subordi- 
nation. Preposition  +  case  is  more  expressive  than  the 
genitive  alone,  when  the  subject  is  to  be  defined  as  to  time, 
place,  value,  kind,  means,  purpose. 

The  predicate  is  either  a  simple  verb  or  a  copula  +  adjec- 
tive or  substantive  or  pronoun  which  may  be  again  expanded 
like  the  subject.  The  complements  of  the  verb  are  object  and 
adverb.  The  object  is  either  a  noun,  substantive  pronoun,  or 
other  words  used  as  nouns.  It  stands  in  the  accusative,  dative 
or  genitive,  or  is  expressed  by  preposition  +  case.  The 
adverb  qualifies  the  verb,  adjective,  and  other  adverb.  It  is 
either  an  adverb  proper  or  preposition  +  case  of  substan- 
tive or  what  is  used  as  such.  It  may  also  be  a  genitive  or  an 
accusative. 

309.  As  to  form  the  main  sentences  may  be  divided  as 
follows  : 

1.  Declarative  sentences,  which  either  affirm  something  of 
the  subject  or  deny  something  with  regard  to  it.  Affirmative  : 
^urj  ift  ter  ©(^merg  unt)  mxQ  ift  i?ie  ^xmu  (Sch.).  !Du  ^aft  l^ia;; 
ma'nten  unc  ^erlen  (Heine).    Negative  :  Va^  Seben  ift  kr  fitter 


132  aEKERAL  SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SEKTEKCE.  [309- 

pc^fte^  nid^t  (Sch.).    ®ie  foKen  i^n  nic^t  ^ahn,  kn  freien  beutfc^en 
3fl^eitt  (Beck). 

1.  The  double  negative  is  still  frequent  in  the  classics  and  collo- 
quially, but  it  is  not  in  accordance  with  correct  usage  now  :  ^eine  Suft  »on 
feiner  ©eite  (G.,  classical).  S)lan  fie^t,  bap  er  an  nic^t^  feinen  3(nteil  nimmt 
(F.  3489)  (said  by  Margaret,  coll.).  After  the  comparative  it  also  occurs 
in  the  classics  :  Sir  muffen  ba^  2Berf  in  biefen  nac^ften  Xa^m  weiter  forberit/  al^ 
ea  in  Sa^ren  nic^t  gebiel)  (Sch.). 

2.  After  verbs  of  "hindering,"  ''forbidding,"  " warning,"  like  'otx^ 
]^utcn>  ijer^inbentf  warneit/  ijerMeten,  etc.,  the  dependent  clause  may  contain 
wttic^U:  ^m  ptet  eud^,  bap  i^r  mir  nic^t^  ijergiept  (G.).  Sfiimm  bic^  in  5l(i)t,  bap 
btc^  9?ac^e  ntc^t  ijerberk  (Sch.). 

3.  When  the  negative  does  not  affect  the  predicate,  the  sentence  may 
still  be  affirmative.  Wn^t  mir,  ben  eignen  Sfugen  ntogt  i^r  glauben  (Sch.).  But 
nic^t  mir  stands  for  a  whole  sentence. 

2.  Interrogative  sentences:  ^aft  tu  ba^  @c^lo§  c^efe^en?  (Uh.). 
2Cer  reitet  fo  fpat  burc^  ^^lai^t  unti  2Cint  ?  (G.).  Double  question  : 
S5ar  ber  33ettler  ^erriiclt  oter  war  er  Betrunfeit  ?  (Slaubft  t)U  taiJ  oDer 
nic^t  ?    2CiUft  tu  immer  n?eiter  fd)tr>eifen  ?  (G. ).    2Ber  ti?ei§  ta^  nid^t  ? 

For  the  potential  subjunctive  in  questions,  see  284,  3. 
For  the  indirect  question,  see  325,  2. 

3.  The  exclamatory  sentence  has  not  an  independent  form. 
Any  other  sentence,  even  a  dependent  clause,  may  become 
exclamatory:  D,  tu  2CaIt,  o  i^r  53erge  triiben  n?ie  feiD  i^r  fo  jung 
geBUeBen  un5  ic^  Un  worsen  fo  alt!  (Uh.).  !Dag  ift  fca^  2o^  te^ 
@(^onen  auf  ter  (Srte !  (Sch.).  S3a^  tan!'  (owe)  i(^  t^m  nic^t  atle^ ! 
(id.).    Sie  ber  ^nabe  gemad^fen  ift ! 

For  the  imperative  and  optative  sentences,  see  284,  2 ;  286. 

310.  Elliptical  clauses  generally  contain  only  the  predicate 
or  a  part  of  it,  including  the  object  or  adverb,  ©uten  ?[Rorgen ! 
mt  I  Truly!  ©etroffen  I  You  have  hit  it !  Sangfam  !  ©c^nelt  I 
etc.    It  is  very  frequent  in  the  imperative,  see  287. 

Proverbs  often  omit  the  verb :  SJiel  ®ef(|rei  unb  ttjenig  2BoIIe,  ^Uint 
^inber,  fletnc  ©orgenj  gro^e  ^inber,  grcpe  (Sorgen.  See  309,  3,  in  which  the 
last  examples  are  really  dependent  questions. 


313]  GENERAL  SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SENTENCE.  133 

Concord  of  Subject  and  Predicate. 

311.  The  predicate  (verb)  agrees  with  the  subject  in  num- 
ber and  person. 

Two  or  more  subjects  (generally  connected  by.  unfc)  require 
a  verb  in  the  plural :  Unter  ten  5lntt)ejcnten  wei^feln  ^ur^t  imt 
Srftaunen  (Sch.).  l:o(|  an  km  iperjen  nagten  mix  ber  Unmut  wnt  W 
©treitbegier  (id.). 

1.  If  the  subjects  are  conceived  as  a  unit  and  by  a  license  greater  in 
German  than  in  English,  the  verb  may  stand  in  the  singular  ;  also  in  the 
inverted  order  if  the  first  noun  is  in  the  singular,  Ex. :  SBai^  t|l  ba^  fur 
eitt  2Kann,  bap  H^m  SBinb  unb  9J?eer  gelorfant  ifi  (B.).  S^^  fprec^e  2Belt  unb  ^ad)^ 
mlt,  etc.  (Sch.).  ©a  fommt  ber  Soulier  unb  feine  ^nec^te.  By  license  :  ©agen 
unb  %i)m  ifl  ^weierlet  (Prov.).  2)aa  9)?i^trauen  unb  bie  ©iferfuc^t  ♦  .  .  txtoa^tt 
Mh  wieber  (Sch.). 

2.  The  plural  verb  stands  after  titles  in  the  singular  in  addressing 
royalty  and  persons  of  high  standing.  In  speaking  of  ruling  princes  the 
plural  also  stands.  Servants  also  use  it  in  speaking  of  their  masters 
when  these  have  a  title.  Ex. :  Sure  ((£».)  5J?aieflat,  2)ur(^lau(|t,  Sxcettenj 
kfe^len?  (Seine  2)?aie|lat  ber  ^dfer  ^ahtn  ^tm%  etc.  2)er  ^err  ©e^etrne 
^ofrat  fmb  nic^t  ju  ^aufe.    'Dk  ^errfd^aft  ftnb  au^gegangen. 

312.  After  a  collective  noun  the  verb  stands  more  regularly 
in  the  singular  than  in  Eng.  Only  when  this  noun  or  an  in- 
definite numeral  is  accompanied  by  a  genitive  pi.,  the  plural 
verb  is  the  rule.  In  early  N.  H.  G.  this  plural  was  very  com- 
mon. T)k  ^enge  flol).  Mt  mU  nimmt  Zdl  (G.)-  ^^"^  ^^^^ 
junge  33oI!  ber  @^nitter  fliegt  gnm  %an^  (Sch.)  ©ort  fommen  ein 
paax  an^  ber  ^ud)e  (Sch.).     Sine  ^D^enge  (Sier  ftnb  ijerborBen. 

313.  When  the  subject  is  a  neuter  pronoun,  e^,  bte^,  ba^, 
etc.,  the  neuter  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  or  sub- 
stantive pronoun  in  number:  Da^  ttjaren  mir  felige  3:age  (Over^ 
beck),  a^  [xnt)  bie  M*te  i^re^  3;^un^  (Sch.).  S^  s^gen  brei  Sager 
tvo^I  auf  bie  53irf(^  (Uh.).  In  this  case  e^  is  only  expletive.  S3er 
flnb  biefe  ? 


134  GENERAL  SYITTAX — SIMPLE   SENTEi^CE.  [314- 

314.  When  subjects  are  connected  by  entn?eter  —  ol?er,  nic^t 
nur  —  fotttern  au(^,  treter  —  noc^,  \om^  —  aU  (au(^),  the  verb  has 
the  person  and  number  of  the  first  subject  and  joins  this  one 
if  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons.  The  verb  for  the 
second  subject  is  omitted.  (Sntwelier  In  ge^ft  (or  gel)ft  tu)  oter 
id).  XnU  n?ar  id)  f(^ult),  teiU  er.  Subjects  of  the  same  person 
connected  by  the  above  correlatives  ;  by  oter,  nebft,  mit,  famt 
have  as  a  rule  a  singular  verb  and  the  verb  joins  the  second 
subject.  ID  em  35olfe  fann  mitv  geuer  6ei  nod)  SBaffer  (Sch.), 
Neither  fire  nor  water  can  harm  those  people. 

315.  If  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons,  the  first  has 
the  preference  over  the  second,  the  second  over  the  third. 
Moreover,  the  plural  of  the  respective  pronouns  is  often 
added.  S)er  Da  unb  idj,  n?ir  ftnt  m^  figer  (Sch.).  Du  unt  ter 
^Setter,  (i^r)  gel)t  na(^  ^aufe. 

The  adjective  as  a  predicate  or  attribute  has  been  sufficiently  treated 
under  the  adjective,  see  210-225. 

316.  The  noun  as  a  predicate  agrees  with  the  subject  in 
case  ;  if  the  subject  is  a  person,  also  in  number  and  gender, 
but  in  the  latter  only  when  there  are  special  forms  for  mascu- 
line and  feminine.  See  167.  Ex.:  Die  S3eltgef(^id)te  ift  ba^ 
Seltgerid^t  (Sch.).  tk  ^ot  ift  tie  mntkv  ter  Srftntung  (Prov.). 
Xa^  ?0^dt(^en  tviU  iejt  Srgielerin  njerten,  auerft  tvottte  fie  @^au)>ieleritt 
merben* 

1.  If  one  person  is  addressed  as  <Ste  or  S^r,  the  substantive  stands  of 
course  in  the  singular.  «<Sie  finb  ein  grower  Md^tx  m  ®c^te§en."  Poetic  and 
emphatic  are  such  turns  as  :  ^iegierte  0lec^t  fo  laget  i^r  i)or  mir  im  ©taube  je^t, 
benn  i^  Hn  Suer  ^ijnig  (Sch.,  spoken  by  Maria  Stuart). 

317.  The  substantive  in  apposition  has  the  same  concords 
as  the  substantive  in  the  predicate,  only  the  rule  as  to  case  is 
frequently  found  unobserved  in  the  best  writers.  23a^  3Senud 
^ant),  tie  ^ringerin  te^  ®(ud^,  fann  ^ax^,  ter  ©tern  be^  Ungliicfd 


320]  GEKERAL  SYNTAX — COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  185 

fdjnea  aerrei^cn  (Sch.).     3^r  Rennet  i^n,  ten  ec^opfer  turner  ipeere 
(id.). 

The  apposition  may  be  emphasized  by  namltc^  and  a\i  t  3|ncn,  ol^  einem 
gereiften  2Kanne,  glauben  Wir. 

II.    THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 

318.  The  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
clauses,  which  may  be  coordinate  (of  equal  grammatical 
value)  or  subordinate  (one  dependent  upon  the  other). 

Coordinate  Sentences. 
We  may  distinguish  various  kinds  of  coordinate  sentences, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  connected  by  conjunctions. 

319.  Copulative  Sentences.  The  conjunctions  unt,  aucb, 
tecgtetd)en,  gleid)fa(l^,  ebenfall^,  and  their  compounds,  teegkid^en 
aitd^,  fo  aud^,  eBenfo  aud^;  ttt#  nur  —  fonbern  auc^;  md)t  aMn  — 
fontern  aud) ;  fowol)!  —  aU  (auc^)  ;  iueler  —  nod)  indicate  mere 
parataxis.  S^^tm,  au§erbem,  iiBertie^,  ja,  fogar,  ja  fogar,  i)ielmel)r 
emphasize  the  second  clauses.  Partitive  conjunctions  are 
kiU  —  kiU,  ^alh  —  ^cdb,  gum  Znl  —  }^um  ZtxL  Ordinal  con- 
junctions are  erften^  —  gmeiten^,  etc.  ;  juerft  —  tann  —  ferner, 
entU(^,  jute^t ;  Bait — bait).  Explanatory  are  namlidj,  wnt  jnjar. 
Ex. :  t)ie  ^iiV  ij^  llein,  fcer  ©pap  ift  grop  (F.  4049).  §alb  sog  ftc 
i^n,  ^al6  fan!  er  ^in  (G.).  3ti)  iiJttl  t^^ter  leugncn  no(^  Befc^onigett, 
tap  i(^  fie  Berefcete  (id.).  9li^t  allein  bie  erften  33luten  fallen  ah, 
font  em  anc^  tie  griid^te  (id.). 

1.  Notice  that  the  adverbial  conjunctions  such  as  Hlh,  julc^t,  bann, 
Weber  —  no^,  ^a\b,  teila,  etc.,  always  cause  inversion.  Some  admit  of 
inversion,  but  do  not  require  it,  e.g.,  aucf),  erflen^,  namlid).  The  ordinal 
conjunctions  and  ttamlt^  are  frequently  separated  by  a  comma,  then  no 
inversion  takes  place,  ©rf^en^  i|l  e^  fo  ber  fQxau^,  jwetten^  tt>itt  man'^  felkr 
au^  (Busch). 

320.  Adversative  Sentences.  1.  One  excludes  the  other 
(disjunctive-adversative)  :    oter,  or,  entlveter  —  oter,  fonft  (else), 


136  GENERAL  SYNTAX— COMPOUND   SENTENCE.  320- 

anternfafl^,  otherwise.  Ex.:  (£r  ( Sallenftein)  mu^te  entmeber  gar 
nic^t  befe^Ien  oter  mtt  iJoUfommener  gret^eit  ^anteln  (Sch.).  One 
contradicts  the  other  (contradictory  -  adversative)  :  fontern, 
»ielmel)r,  fonbern  ♦  ,  .  »ielmel)r»  The  first  clause  contains  ni(^t, 
gmar,  freilic^,  allerbing^,  wo^L  <So  magten  fie  ft^  ni^t  in  tie  5*la^e 
ter  %mU,  fonbent  fel)rtett  uni)erri(^teter  @ad)e  jurM  (Sch.). 

2.  The  second  sentence  concedes  the  statement  of  the  first 
in  part  or  wholly.  The  first  may  contain  nic^t,  etc.,  as  above; 
the  second  has  aBer,  often  in  the  connection  aBer  bod),  tennod) 
aBer,  aber  glei^mo^l ;  aOein,  iibrigen^  j  nur.  Mm  is  stronger  than 
aber* 

Mark  the  contrast  between  aber  and  fonbern,  Eng.  but.  Slkr  concedes, 
fonbern  contradicts,  ©r  war  jwar  nic^t  !rant  aber  bo(|  ni(^t  ba^u  aufgelegt,  "but 
he  did  not  feel  like  it."  (£r  war  nid)t  franf,  fonbern  er  war  nur  ni^t  baju  auf=* 
gelegt  (he  only  did  not  feel  like  doing  it).  S3iele  ftnb  berufen  aber  wenige  finb 
ou^erwa^let  (B.).  2)en  Unge^euern;  ben  ®igantif(^en  |atte  ntan  t|n  (Sorneille) 
nennen  fotten,  aber  ni(|t  ben  ©ro^en  (Le.).  Staffer  f^ut'^  freilic^  nid)t  (It  is  not 
the  Water  that  is  effective  in  baptism),  fonbern  ba^  Sort  ®otte(5,  fo  (which) 
mit  Uttb  bet  bent  SBaffcr  ift  (Lu.). 

3.  The  second  sentence  states  something  new  or  different 
or  in  contrast  with  the  first  without  contradicting  or  exclud- 
ing or  limiting  the  same.  It  occurs  commonly  in  narrative 
and  may  be  called  "  connexive- or  contrasting-adversative. " 
Conjunctions:  akr,  ^ittgegen,  bagegen,  liBrtgens,  tro^tem,  glei(^njo^(, 
inteffen,  etc.  tk  53eletbtgurtg  tft  gro§ ;  aber  grower  ift  feine  ©nabe 
(Le.).  @^  fc^eint  etn  mt]d  unt)  bodj  tft  eg  Mn^  (G.)-  (S^ift^ie 
fd)onfte  ^offnung;  bo(^  ift  eg  nur  eine  ^offnung  (Sch.). 

321.  Causal  Sentences.  One  gives  the  reason  or  cause  for 
the  other.  Conjunctions:  b(a)rum,  begwegen,  baber,  benn,  namlidJ, 
etc.  The  clause  containing  the  reason  generally  stands 
second,  the  one  beginning  with  „benn"  always.  Notice  benn, 
"for,"  always  calls  for  the  normal  order.  Ex.:  8oIbaten  n?aren 
teuer,  benn  bie  iD^enge  ge^t  na6^  bent  (31M  (Sch.).  (Sine  £)urd5laud}^ 
tigfeit  la§t  er  fi(^  nennen;  brum  mu^  er  ©otbaten  ^alten  lonnen  (id.). 


325]        GENERAL   SYiq^TAX — SUBORDI]S"ATE   SENTENCES.        137 

322.  Illative  Sentences.  One  sentence  is  an  inference  or 
effect  of  the  other.  Closely  related  to  the  causal.  Conjunc- 
tions :  fo,  a'Ifo,  fomi't,  folgltc^,  mit^i'n,  be'mnad),  etc.  iDZeine  3fled^te 
(right  hand)  tft  gegen  ten  Drud  ter  Siefec  uttempftnfcli(^  ♦  ♦  ♦  fo 
(then)  feit  i^r  ®b^  »ott  33erUc^ingctt  (G.).  T>  i  c  ©onnen  alfo  fd^eitten 
un^  nid^t  me^r  (Sch. ). 

SUBOEDINATE    SENTENCES. 

323.  We  shall  distinguish  three  classes  of  dependent 
clauses,  according  to  the  logical  value  of  the  part  of  speech 
they  represent: 

1.  Substantive  clauses,  with  the  value  of  a  noun. 

2.  Adjective  clauses,  with  the  value  of  an  adjective. 

3.  Adverbial  clauses,  with  the  value  of  an  adverb. 

Substantive  Clauses. 

324.  The  clause  is  subject :  "Za^  ekn  ift  ter  gluc^  ter  bbfen 
Zl)at,  Daf  fte  fortivci^rent)  ^ofe^  mu^  geMrett  (Sch.).  ^i(^  reuet,  t)a§ 
i^'^  t^at  (id.).  Predicate  (N.)  :  Xie  ^enf^eit  pnt)  nicbt  immer 
tua^  (te  f(^einen  (Le.).  Object  (A.):  ©lauBjl  t)U  ni&it,  fca^  erne 
SBarnung^jltmme  in  2:rdumett  ttorkteutent)  ju  itnd  fprtdJt?  (Sch.). 
S3ag  man  f^tvarj  auf  we{§  befi^t,  !ann  man  getroft  na(^  ipaufe  tragen 
(F.  1966-7).  Dative  :  S3o^l  bem,  ter  M5  anf  t)te  ^fletge  (to  the 
very  end)  rein  geleBt  fein  Seben  ^at  (He.).  Genitive  :  2Be^  ta^ 
iper^  »oII  tft,  be^  ge^t  ber  ^unti  likr  (B.).  Apposition:  T)en  ebein 
8tol3,t)a§  bu  bir  felbft  nic^t  genugej^,  ^eqet^'  id)  bir  (G.). 

325.  As  to  their  contents  the  substantive  clauses  may  be 
grouped  as  follows: 

1.  i)a§,  or  declarative  clauses,  always  introduced  by  „ba^»'' 
©(^ott  @o!rate^  le^rte,  ba^  bie  @eete  be^  'Mtn\6>m  unfterBlid)  fei,  or  bie 
Se^re,ba§  bie  @eele  .  .  .  ,  or  mir  glauBen,  ^a^  bie  @eele  ♦  ♦  ♦ 

More  examples  in  324. 


138       GENERAL  SYI^TAX — SUBORDIIS^ATE   SENTEI^CES.        [325- 

2.  Clauses  containing  indirect  questions  :  a.  Questions  after 
the  predicate  always  introduced  by  ob ;  in  the  main  clause  may 
stand  as  correlatives  e^,  ta^,  Ceffen,  tat)on,  etc.  (Er  l^atte  n\6>t 
gef^rickn,  ob  er  gefunt  geblie&en  (Bii.).  (See  F.  1667-70).  h. 
Questions  after  any  other  part  of  the  sentence,  introduced  by 
an  interrogative  pronoun,  by  an  interrogative  adverb,  simple 
or  compounded  with  a  preposition,  viz.,  mv,  tva^,  mie,  m,  wann, 
\nomit,  itjo^er,  m^n,  etc.  Ex. :  (^raget  nic^t,  n?arum  t(^  traure  (Sch. ). 
See  ¥.  1971.  53egre{fft  bu,  ttjie  antac^tig  fc^marmen  »iel  leit^ter  aU 
gut  ^anbeln  ift?  (Le.).  91oc^  fe^tt  un^  ^unbe,  n?ag  in  Untemalten 
unb  @d^n?i93  gefi^el)en  (Sch.).  c.  The  question  may  be  disjunc- 
tive, introduced  by  ob  —  oter;  oB  —  oter  ob;  ob  —  ob.  Ex.: 
3lber  fag^  mtr,  ob  loir  fte^en  ober  ob  loir  wetter  ge()en  (F.  3906-7). 
Unb  eV  ter  3;ag  ft(^  neigt,  mug  fi(^^^  erftdren,  ob  x&i  Un  greunt,  ob  ic^ 
ben  33ater  foil  entbe^^ren  (Sch.). 

Remarks. — 1.  The  mood  in  1  and  2,  according  to  circumstances,  is 
either  the  indicative  or  the  potential  subjunctive.  See  the  examples 
sub  1  and  in  324. 

3.  In  „ba§"-clauses  the  other  two  word-orders  are  also  possible,  but 
without  ba^:  ©ofrate^  le^rte,  tie  (Seek  fei  unf^erblic^.  ©^  wurbe  fcefauptet,  geflern 
l^vibe  man  i^n  noc^  auf  ber  <Btxa^i  gefe'^en. 

3.  When  tlie  subject  is  the  same  in  both  clauses  or  when  the  subject 
of  the  dependent  clause  is  the  object  of  the  main  clause,  in  short,  when 
no  ambiguity  is  caused,  the  infinitive  clause  can  stand  in  place  of  bap  + 
dependent  order.  5Wan  :^oft,  ba^  untergegangene  ©c^iff  no(^  ju  |eben.  ®ie 
5)oUjei  ^at  bem  ^aufmanne  befo^len,  fein  ©(i^Ub  :^o^er  ju  i^^ngen. 

3.  Clauses  with  indirect  speech — after  verbs  of  saying,  as- 
serting, knowing,  thinking,  wishing,  demanding,  commanding. 
They  either  begin  with  ba§  with  dependent  order  or  they  have 
the  order  of  the  direct  speech.  The  subjunctive  is  the  reigning 
mood.     For  examples  and  tense,  see  282. 

4.  Clauses  containing  direct  speech,  a  quotation :  X)a^  SBort 
ift  frei,  fagt  ber  ©eneral  (Sch.).  Der  ^bnig  rief:  31^  ber  ©anger 
ba? 


328]         GEKEEAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.       139 

*     Adjective  Clauses. 

326.  The  clause  is  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  by 
a  relative  adverb.  Nothing  can  precede  the  pronoun  in  the 
clause  except  a  preposition.  Unless  the  personal  pronoun  is 
repeated  after  the  relative,  the  verb  stands  in  the  third  person. 
Ex.:  S)u  fpric^fi  i)on  3^^ten,  tie  ^ergangen  ftnt  (Sch.).  X)ie  ©tdtte, 
tie  ein  pter  ^^enfc^  betrat,  ift  eingejrei^t  (G.).  X)er  fcu  ijon  tern 
iptmmel  Bift,  fu§er  griete  .  ,  .  (id.). 

For  use  of  the  pronouns  and  more  examples,  see  255-258. 

327.  1.  The  relative  pronoun  can  never  be  omitted  as  in  English. 
In  several  relative  clauses  referring  to  the  same  word,  tlie  pronoun  need 
stand  only  once,  if  the  same  case  is  required  ;  if  a  different  case  is  neces- 
sary, the  pronoun  should  be  repeated.  This  is  often  sinned  against,  for 
instance  by  Schiller :  ©te|  ha  tie  iBerfe,  bie  er  fd^rteb  unb  feine  ®lut  gefte^t, 
instead  of  worin  er  .  .  .  gc  W. 

2.  The  relative  clauses  beginning  with  wer,  toa^  without  antecedents 
are  really  identical  with  substantive  clauses,  e.g.,  2)a  [e^t,  bap  i^r  tiefftnntg 
fapt,  wa^  in  be^  5Wenfd}cn  |>trn  nic^t  papt.  ^^ur  i»a^  brein  ge|t  unb  ni(|t  brein  ge'^t, 
ein  fraftis  Sort  ju  2)ienflen  jlc^t  (F.  1950-3). 

3.  Case-attraction  between  relative  and  antecedent  is  now  rare. 

^U  Wel(^er,  denoting  rather  a  cause  than  a  quality,  is  now  archaic,  but 
still  quite  frequent  in.,Lessing's  time,  tnea^,  al^  m\d)tx  fic^  an  ben  Motlen 
(mere)  ^iguren  erge^et,  =  "^Eneas,  since  he  delights  ..."  (Le.).  ^on  ber 
Xragobie,  al^  iiber  bie  un^  bie  3eit  jiemlic^  atte^  barau^  (of  Aristotle's  Poetics) 
gonnen  ..."  about  tragedy,  in  so  far  as  time  has  favored  us  ...  "  (id.), 
„!Da"  in  the  relative  clause  is  no  longer  usage.  2Ber  ba  ftet)et,  fe^e  ju,  bap  er 
nic^t  falle  (B.). 

328.  The  mood  depends  upon  circumstances.  The  poten- 
tial subjunctive  (of  the  preterit  and  pluperfect)  is  frequent 
after  a  negative  main  clause.  S^  ift  feine  gro^e  ©tatt  in  Ticutfd)^ 
lanfc,  Die  ber  Dn!el  nicbt  Befu*t  I)dtte  (=  did  not  visit).  The  sub- 
junctive of  indirect  speech  also  stands.  "Lit  Sle^iernng  Der 
3?ereinigten  (Staaten  befd^merte  fic^  iifcer  bie  Sanbuna  fotoieler  airmen; 
wel^e  manege  euro|)dif(^e  Sflegierung  fortfi^ide. 


140      GE2^EEAL  SYKTAX — SUBORDINATE  SEJ^TENCES.       [329^ 

Adterbial  Clauses.     ' 

329.  They  are  introduced  by  the  subordinating  conjunc- 
tions. The  main  clause  often  has  an  emphatic  adverb,  e.  g., 
alfo,  tann,  ta,  ba^in,  je^t,  fearer,  Ux\xvx.  ©o  does  not,  as  a  rule, 
stand  after  dependent  clauses  expressing  time  and  place,  and 
generally  becomes  superfluous  in  English  after  dependent 
clauses  of  manner. 

330.  Temporal  Clauses.  1.  Contemporaneous  action  imply- 
ing either  duration  or  only  point  of  time.  Conjunctions  : 
ma^rent),  intern,  xxC^t^  (inteffen),  tute,  t>a  (all  meaning  "while," 
"  as  ") ;  folange  (aU) ;  fo  oft  (al^) ;  fo  balb  (at^) ;  ta,  lt)0  (rare  and 
colloquial)  =  when;  wenn  (wann  is  old)  +  "  when,"  refers  to 
the  future;  al0,  "when,"  refers  always  to  the  past  with  the 
preterit ;  ttjeil,  bteweil,  bcrtDetl,  =  -{-  "  while,"  are  archaic, 
©olange,  fo  oft,  foBalb   are  now  much  more  common  without 

Ex.:  5[(^  !  steKeii^t  inbem  (as)  tt)ir  l^offen,  ^at  Utt«  Unveil  fc^on  getroffen  (Sch.). 
^m  ber  ©tarfe  JDttb  ba^  ©cfcitffal  jwingen,  tt)enn  ber  ©c^wac^Ung  unterliegt  (Sch.). 
Unb  wie  (as)  er  ft^t  unb  xoxt  er  Iaufd)t,  teilt  fic^  bie  glut  empor  (G.).  511^  be^ 
(Sanctum  SBorte  tamen,  ba  fc^ellt  er  bretmal  bei  bem  S^Jamen  (w<Sanctu^  .  .  ."  is 
part  of  the  mass)  (Sch.).  (£^  irrt  ber  SPlenfc^,  folang'  er  flre^t  (F.  317).  ©o^alb 
bie  erflen  Serd)ett  fd)iDirrten  (erfi^ien)  ein  SSJlabc^en  f^on  un5  tuunberkr  (Sch.).  !Da^ 
©ifen  mu§  gefc^nttebet  tverben,  m\\  ti  %l\\\)i  (Prov.).  SCBitt  mir  bie  ^anb  noc^- 
reic^en,  beriweil  tc^  eben  lab  {=  while  I  am  loading  the  musket)  (Uh.). 

2.  Antecedent  action,  i.  e,,  the  action  of  the  dependent  clause 
precedes  that  of  the  main  clause.  Conjunctions  :  nac^tem, 
after ;  ba,  al^,  mnn,  after,  when  ;  feitl^em,  fctt,  feitbem  ba§  (all 
mean  +  since)  ;  fobalt)  (aU),  fowie,  tok,  as  soon  as  ;  the  adverb 
!aum  +  inverted  order. 

Ex. :  9?immer  (no  more)  fang  i^  freubige  Sieber,  feit  x^  beine  ©timme  tin 
(Sell.).  SBenn  (after)  ber  Ceib  in  (Staul>  jerfatten,  ItU  ber  grope  9?ame  nod)  (Sch.). 
Unb  tt>tc  er  winft  mit  bem  ginger,  auf  f^ut  ftc^  ber  weite  Btvlnger  (id.),  ^aum  njar 
ber  ^aitx  tot,  fo  fommt  ein  jeber  mit  feincm  9?ing  (Le.).    (Notice  the  inversion.) 


332]        GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE  SENTENCES.         141 

5)er  tbnig  »erUe§  fRurn^berg,  nai^bem  er  e^  jur  ^iirforge  mit  etner  linlanglic^en 
aSefa^ung  ijerfefien  ^atte  (Scli.). 

3.  Subsequent  action.  The  action  of  the  dependent  clause 
follows.  Conjunctions:  (£l)e,  Bei)or,  +  "ere",  "before";  hi^, 
until,  with  or  without  taf . 

Ex. :  9?{e  ijerac^te  ben  9)?ann,  eV  t)u  fetn  Snn^rc^  erfannt  '^afl  (He.).  35c»or 
n)ir^«  laffen  rlnnen,  :6etet  etnen  frommen  ©pru(^  (Sch.).  33i^  bie  ®to(fe  fic^  ttcr= 
fii^let,  rafll  bte  ftrenge  Str:6eit  ru^n  (id.).  (£|e  wir  e^  un«  ijerfa^en  (unexpectedly), 
hac^  ber  SSJagen  jufammen, 

a.  The  main  clause  may  be  emphasized  by  bann,  bamal^,  banit,  barouf, 
and  fOf  if  it  follows  the  dependent  clause. 

In  2  and  3  the  potential  subjunctive  can  stand. 

331.  Local  Clauses.  They  denote  the  place  and  direction 
of  the  action  of  the  main  clause.  They  begin  with  mo,  n?oI){n, 
nJO^er,  and  the  main  clause  may  contain  a  corresponding  ta, 

Ex.:  2Bo  5Kenfc^entunf!  nic^t  jureic^t,  ^at  ber  ^imntet  oft  geraten  (Sch.).  2)ie 
SBelt  i^  ijottfommen  nhtxaU,  too  ber  SWenfc^  md)t  Ijinfommt  mit  feiner  Dual  (id.). 
2)etin  ektt  i»o  Segriffe  fe'^Ien,  ba  fleUt  ein  2Bort  jur  re(|ten  3eit  |tc^  ein  (F.  1995-6). 
tein  Sapr  if!  ju  |akn,  wo|tn  man  fic^  auc^  wenbe. 

a.  The  demonstratives  ba,  ba^tn,  batjer  in  the  local  clause  are  now 
archaic.  Do  not  confound  the  relative  clauses  and  indirect  questions  with 
the  local  clauses  which  generally  refer  to  an  adverb. 

The  potential  subjunctive  may  stand  in  them, 

Glauses  of  Manner  and  Cause. 

332.  Modal  clauses  express  an  accompanying  circumstance 
and  are  therefore  related  to  contemporaneous  clauses.  Con- 
junctions: intern,  tag  jtic^t,  o§ne  tag,  without,  intern  nt^t,  ftatt  or 
anftatt  ta§,  instead  of.  Ex. :  Xix  diitkx  ging  fort,  intern  er  auf  ten 
©egner  einen  i)erac^t(i(^en  ^M  marf.  3(^  Un  nie  in  Sonton,  tap  i(^ 
ni&it  ta^  ^ufenm  Befui^te  (subj.). 

1,  They  may  have  the  potential  subjunctive.  But  these  clauses  occur 
more  frequently  in  the  form  of  participial  and  infinitive  clauses  with 


142       GENERAL   SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.        [333- 

wO^ne  ju,"  „an\tan  ju"  :  5U*|)afl,  anflatt  ju  empfansen,  mu^te  ja!^kn.    (£r  ritt  fort 
o|ne  ftc^  umjufe^en, 

333.  Comparative  clauses  denote  manner,  degree,  and 
measure.  Conjunctions:  \vk,  aU,  "  as,"  "  than  "  with  the  corre- 
sponding fo,  alfo,  ebenfo  (=:  so)  in  the  main  clause.  After  the 
comparative  aU,  Unn,  meter,  "than."  Other  forms:  cjleid)tt)ie  — 
fo ;  fo  n?ie  —  fo ;  just  as  —  as,  so.  Khc  denotes  rather  manner 
and  quality,  aU  the  degree  and  quantity.  When  both  clauses 
have  the  same  predicate,  contraction  is  common.  Then  wit 
denotes  likeness,  aU  identity. 

Ex. :  3c^  finge  mt  ber  SJogel  ftngt  (G.).  'Danfet  ®ott  fo  warm  aU  i(^  fitr  biefen 
2;runf  eu(^  banfe  (id.).  2Bte  bu  mir  {„t^u\t"  understood), fo  ic^  bir  (Prov.).  Du 
t>ljl  mir  ni^t^  mef)r  aU  fein  (So^n  (Sch.).  2)er  trcige  ©ang  be^  ^riege^  ^at  bem 
f  onig  eben[o»tcl  (Sd)aben  get^an  aU  er  ben  9?eknen  SSorteit  brac^te  (id.),  ^atte  ftc^ 
ein  9flanjlein  angemafl^t  aU  wie  ber  2)oftor  Sutler  (F.  2139-30)  {aU  n>k  is  collo- 
quial). „2Bte  ein  9litter»''  "  like  a  knight " ;  „aU  (ein)  flitter,"  "  as  a  knight." 
©cin  (^liicf  war  grower  aU  man  krec^net  ^atte  (Sch.).  (£ine^  ^aupte^  (by  one 
head)  Idnger  benn  atte^  SSolf  (B.).    2Beber  is  very  rare. 

1.  Specially  to  be  noticed  are  the  clauses  with  aU  o^,  al^wenn»  gener- 
ally followed  by  the  potential  or  unreal  subjunctive.  For  Wenn  +  de- 
pendent order  occurs  also  the  inverted  without  wenn.  Ex.:  3^x  eilet  ia,  ciU 
mm  \\)x  i5litgel  ^attet  (Le.).  ©uc^e  bie  SSiffenfc^aft,  aU  wiirbefl  ewtg  bu  ^tcr  fein; 
J^ugenb,  aU  "^ielte  ber  Zoh  bic^  f(|on  am  flraubenben  |)aar  (He.).  But  the  indica- 
tive is  possible :  Unb  e^  waltet  unb  ftebet  unb  Braufet  unb  jifc^t  mt  mm  Staffer 
mit  i^euer  fid)  mengt  (Sch.). 

2.  1)enn  is  preferable  after  a  comparative  when  several  „aU"  occur. 
SSie  is  colloquial.  (£^  fragt  fic^  ob  Seffing  grower  aU  2)id)ter  benn  al^  Wh\\\6) 
gcwcfcn  fci.  W\<i)t  in  the  clause  after  alsS  is  no  longer  good  usage,  though 
common  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.     Lessing  has  it  very  frequently. 

M)  lebte  [o  eingejogen,  a\^  id)  in  2Kei^en  nid)t  gelett  f)atte  (Le.). 

a.  9Ji(^tg  wcniger  aU  means  "  anything  but,"  literally  "nothing  less  than  that,"  gen- 
erally felt  by  English  speakers  as  meaning  "  nothing  but,"  e.  g.,  5l6er  \^  barf  fagcn,  ba§ 
biefe  Sinvii^tung  ber  %abd  ni^tg  weniger  aI6  notwenbig  ift,  i.  «.,  that  this  arrangement  of 
the  plot  is  anything  but  necessary  (Le.).  In  „nic^t8  atS"  =  "  nothing  but,"  as  after  all 
negative  pronouns,  „niemonb  al6  bu"  =  nobody  but  you,  oI§  has  exclusive  force,  = 
''  but.'" 

3.  Other  correlatives  are  fo  einer  —  ivie;  ber  namlic^e  —  n)ic;  berfelte  — 
tt)ie;  foI(i^-,  10  +  positive  adjective  —  iDie  (quality)  and  al^  (degree);  after 


336]        GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE  SENTENCES.        143 

ju,  aU^vi  +  positive  and  after  etn  anberer  stand  al<3  +  bap  or  mm,  aU  and 
infinitive,  e.g.,  (£r  benft  ju  ebel,  aU  ba§  er  fo  etwa^  »on  un^  emarten  fonnte. 
(£r  ijl  ber  ncimlic^e  mie  er  immer  war.  Sure  SiJerfo^nung  toax  tin  mnxQ  ju  fc^neH, 
al^  bap  fte  bauer^aft  ^atte  fein  fotten  (G.). 

Notice  the  potential  subjunctive  after  ndU  bap.'' 

334.  Under  this  head  comes  really  the  proportional  clause, 
which  expresses  the  proportion  of  the  decrease  or  increase  of 
what  is  asserted  in  the  main  clause.  The  conjunctions  are 
the  following  correlatives  :  je  —  tefto,  urn  fo  (or  urn  tefto,  rarely) ; 
je  —  it,  =  the  —  the;  je  na^bem  (or  nac^tem  or  tvie,  rarely), 
according  as.  If  the  main  clause  stand  first,  its  correlative 
is  dispensable. 

Ex. :  3e  me^r  ber  SJorrat  [(^motj,  bejlo  [(^redlic^er  wud)^  ber  hunger  (Scli.). 
3e  langer,  je  Uekr  (Prov.).  3e  me^r  er  ^cit,  je  mc^r  er  wiE.  (3e)  naci^bem  einer 
ringt,  nad^bem  i^m  gelingt  (G.),  '*The  success  depends  upon  the  effort." 

1.  3e  =  ever  ;  bejio,  "  on  that  account,"  "  hence,"  see  442,  a.  Notice 
the  dependent  order  in  the  first,  the  inverted  generally  in  the  second. 

335.  Consecutive  clauses  express  the  result  or  effect  of  the 
predicate  of  the  main  clause.  Conjunctions:  t)a§  (fobap),  that; 
in  the  main  clause,  if  any  correlative,  fo,  fo  fe^r,  bergejlalt,  terart, 
folc^.  Ex. :  @o  i)erabf(^eut  ift  tie  Zi)xanmx',  tag  ffe  fein  SBerf^eug 
ftntet  (Sch.).  dx  f(^(ug,  taf  laut  ter  SCalt  erflang  unt  alle^  Sifen  in 
<3tucfen  fprang  (Uh.). 

1  The  result  may  also  be  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  main  clause  or 
of  an  infinitive  clause :  2)oc^  it^erna^m^  tci^  gem  noc^  ei'nmal  aUt  ^la^t,  fo  liefe 
war  mtr  ba^  ^inb  (F.  3123-4).  3c^  Mn  ju  alt,  urn  nur  ju  fptelen,  ju  iung  urn  o^nc 
2Bunf(^  JU  fein  (F.  1546-7). 

2.  Mark  the  potential  and  unreal  subjunctives  of  the  preterit  and  plu- 
perfect which  may  stand  in  these  clauses  :  35ermeint  3^r  mid^  fo  jung  unb 
ft^iuac^,  bap  i(^  mtt  9fliefen  jlritte?  (Uh.).  X)a0  9Jf«b  war  fo  la^m,bap  wir  fc^neHer 
JU  %u^  ^eim  gefontmcn  waren. 

336.  Restrictive  clauses  limit  the  value  and  scope  of  the 
statement  of  the  predicate  and  border  closely  upon  the  con- 
ditional and  comparative  clauses.    Conjunctions:  nur  taj,  only 


144        GENERAL   SYNTAX— SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.        [337- 

(that),  aufer  ba§,  except  that,  in  fo  fern  (aU),  wofern,  in  tt?ie  fern, 
in  fo  or  in  ton  weit,  in  as  far  as,  in  as  much  as.  The  negative 
force  is  given  also  by  the  subjunctive  and  the  normal  order 
with  the  adverb  benn  or  by  e^  fei  knn,  e^  n?dre  benn,  tja^,  which  is 
now  more  common. 

Ex. :  2Bir  waren  gar  nic^t  fo  iibel  bran,  nur  ba§  wtr  ntc^t^  ju  trinfen  l^atten,  We 
were  not  at  all  so  badly  off,  only  ...  3tt  fo  fern  nun  biefe  Sefen  ^orper  ftnb, 
f(|ilbert  bie  9Joefie  auc^  ^orper  (Le.).  (£r  entfernte  ftd)  niemals^  mit,  er  fagt'  cd 
i|r  benn  (H.  and  D.,  IV.  42-3).  3(^  laffe  bic^  ni(|t,  bu  fegnej^  mic^  benn  (unless 
thou  bless  me)  (B.).  Oiu^ig  (gebenfe  ic^  mic^  ju  ijer^alten);  e^  fei  benn,  ba^ 
(unless)  er  fic^  an  meiner  S^re  ober  meinen  ©ittern  pergreife  (Sch.). 

1.  This  is  a  very  old  construction,  quite  common  in  M.  H.  G.  The 
negative  force  lies  not  in  benn,  but  in  the  lost  ne  +  the  potential  or  con- 
cessive subjunctive.  !Denn  <  M.  H.  G.  danne,  is  unessential.  Compare 
M.  H.  G.  den  Up  ml  ich  verliesen,  si  en  werde  min  ijcnp  =  my  life  will  I 
lose,  (she  become  not  my  wife)  unless  she,  etc.  Swaz  lehete  in  dem  walde 
e^  entrunne  danne  halde,  das  was  zehant  tot,  =  9Ba<5  im  Salbe  leBte,  ba^  wax 
auf  ber  ©teUe  tot,  e^  fei  benn  ba§  t^  Balb  bapon  lief  or  gelaufen  njdre  (quoted  by 
Paul).  He  disappeared  as  early  as  late  M.  H.  G.,  particularly  after  a 
negative  main  clause.  It  is  left  in  nur  <  ne  waere  =  (e^)  ware  nic^t  ba§. 
See  Paul's  M.  H.  G.  gram.,  §  335-40. 

337.  Causal  clauses  denote  the  cause,  reason,  and  means. 
Conjunctions:  ba,  since,  weil,  because,  intern  =  by  +  present 
participle  in  Eng.  Correlatives,  if  any:  ba'rum,  ba'^er,  fo,  teel^alb 
etc.  X)a't>ur(^  ba§,  ta'mit  ba§  express  rather  the  instrument. 
S3eil  expresses  the  material  cause;  ba  the  logical  reason;  „in^ 
tern"  is  a  weak  causal  and  borders  rather  closely  upon  the 
contemporaneous  ^intern."  X)enn  +  normal  order  expresses  a 
known  or  admitted  reason.     It  is  emphatic.     See  321. 

Ex. ;  2)ad  ©ci^tepptau  (hawser)  jerrtp,  loeil  ber  ©c^leppbampfer  (tug)  ju  fd)nea 
anjog*  a^it  bem  ^eflen  SBillen  letften  wir  fo  iDenig,  mil  una  taufenb  Sitten  freujen 
(G.).  Seben  anbern  ^u  fd)i(fen  ifi  beffer,  ba  i^  fo  flein  Mn  (G.).  2)ir  bliifit  gejoip 
baa  fc^onjle  &IM  auf  (£rben,  ba  bu  fo  fromm  unb  ^eiHg  bijl  (Sch.).  0lic^elteu  rouptc 
jld^  nur  baburc^  sw  ^elfen,  ba§  er  ben  ^^elnbfeligfeiteu  cin  fc^Ieunigea  ©nbe  mad)te  (Sch.). 

1.  9'Jun,  bieweil,  attbieweil,  mapen,  [internal,  and  others,  are  rare  and 
archaic. 


339]   GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE  SENTENCES.    145 

2.  The  clauses  with  ba'burc^  baf,  ba'mit  ba^  border  closely  upon  the 
substantive  clause.  2)a,  says  Becker,  denotes  the  real  and  logical  rea- 
son, Weil  the  logical  only  when  the  kind  of  reason  is  not  emphasised. 
2BeiI  stands  in  a  clause  that  answers  the  question  as  to  the  reason. 

Sffiarum  wurbe  SBattenjlein  a^efe^t?    Sell  man  i^n  fiir  einen  SJerrater  ^ielt. 

338.  Final  clauses  express  intention  and  object.  Con- 
junctions: Vami't,  baf,  "in  order  that."  2luf  taf,  unb  ba^  are 
archaic.  In  the  main  clause  rarely  stand  tarum,  t)ii^\i,  in  tcr 
^bftd)t,  3U  bent  3^cdt  (both  followed  by  ta§), 

Ex.:  ©arum  cBeit  lei^t  er  fetnem,  bamit  er  fiet«  ju  ge'ben  ^abt  (Le.).  ©aju  anub 
it)m  ber  ©erfianb,  bap  er  im  innern  ^erjen  fpuret,  wa^  er  erf(^afft  mit  feiner  ^ano 
(Sch.).  e^re  3)ater  unb  SS^utter,  auf  ba§  bir'^  wo^l  ge^e  unb  bu  lange  UUfi  auf 
erben(B.). 

1.  The  reigning  mood  of  this  clause  is  the  subjunctive.  If  the  object 
is  represented  as  reached,  the  indicative  may  also  stand.  Urn  ju  +  inf. 
forms  a  very  common  final  clause  ;  Wlan  le^t  ni(^t  um  ju  effen,  fonbern  man  t§t 
um  ju  leben. 

339.  Concessive  clauses  make  a  concession  to  the  contra- 
diction existing  between  the  main  clause  and  the  result  ex- 
pected from  it  in  the  dependent  clause.  They  are  called  also 
adversative  causal  clauses.  Conjunctions  :  obgIei'(^  (o&  *  .  . 
gleic^),  ob[(^o'tt  (ob  .  ♦  .  f<^on),  obttjo^l  (ob  .  .  .  mo^l),  ob  auc^,  ob 
gn?ar,  mnn  and),  mnn  qUx6^,  ob,  all  =  "although."  The  main 
clause  may  contain  tc'nnoct),  t)0(^,  nic^t^bejioiueni^er,  gteidjmo^I,  but 
fo  only  if  it  stands  second. 

Relative  clauses  with  indefinite  relative  pronouns  and 
adverbs,  njer  .  .  .  and)  (immer,nur),  n?ie  ♦  .  .  auc^,  [o  .  .  .  auc^ 
(noc^) ;  inverted  clauses  and  those  with  the  normal  order,  con- 
taining the  adverbs  fc^on,  Qkidj,  jti^ar,  t»o^I,  freilid),  noc^  have  also 
concessive  force. 

Ex. :  3\t  ea  9lei(^  9^ac^t,  fo  leuc^tet  unfer  OJec^t  (Sch.).  (Compare  Dbgleic^  e^ 
^ad^t  til,  ob  e^  gteic^  ^a^t  ift  .  .  .)  2Ba^  Sfeuer^wut  i^m  auc^  geraubt,  ein  fiiper 
Srofl  ift  t^m  geblie'&en  (id.).  9)luttg  fprac^  er  ju  9ieine!en^  bejlen  (in  favor  of  R.) 
fo  falf(|  auc^  biefer  befannt  mx  (G.).  ©in  ®ott  ift,  ein  ^eiltger  2BitIc  lebt,  tt)tc  au6) 
ber  menf(^li(|e  wanfe  (Sch.).    ©rfutt'  ba»on  bein  ^erj,  fo  qxo^  ee  ifl  (F.  3453). 


146       GENEKAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDIKATE   SENTEI^CES.        [340- 

SKan  fommt  in^  ©erebe^  wie  man  jtc^  immer  flettt  (Q.).  2)cm  S3i>fett)id^t  wirb  aUt^ 
\^mx,  er  t^ue  iwa^  er  mU  (Holty).  Qroax  t»eig  ic^  »iel,  boc^  mbc^t^  i^  atte^  toiffen 
(F.  601). 

1.  Mark  also  the  form  of  the  imperative  and  unb  +  inversion :  (Set 
nod^  fo  bumnt/  e^  gibt  bo(^  jemanb(en),  ber  bic^  fitr  weife  l;alt.  !Der  5Wenfc^  ifl  fvci 
fiefc^affen,  i|l  frei,  unb  twiirbe  er  in  ^'etten  ge^oren  (Sch.). 

2.  Mood :  if  a  fact  is  stated,  the  indicative ;  if  a  supposition,  the  con- 
cessive and  unreal  subjunctive.     See  examples  above. 

3.  When  certain  parts  of  speech  are  common  to  both  clauses,  there 
may  be  contraction,     Dlbtoo^l  i)on  §o^em  <Stamm,  liebt  er  ha^  35oIf  (Sch.). 

340.  Conditional  clauses  express  a  supposition  upon  wliicli 
the  statement  of  the  main  clause  will  become  a  fact.  If  the 
supposition  is  real,  the  conditional  clause  has  the  indicative ; 
if  only  fancied  or  merely  possible,  the  potential  subjunctive; 
if  it  implies  that  the  contrary  of  the  supposition  is  about  to 
happen  or  has  happened,  then  it  has  the  unreal  subjunctive 
of  the  imperfect  or  the  pluperfect.  Conjunctions  :  njenn,  if; 
faflg,  im  ^alle  l)a§,  in  case  that;  mnn  anter^,  if  ...  at  all;  also 
tvofern,  fofern  (such  often  difficult  to  distinguish  from  a  conces- 
sive clause) ;  tt)0,  fo  (rare).  The  main  clause  may  have  t>a,  tann, 
in  fcem  %(iUt,  and  if  it  stand  second,  generally  begins  with  fo. 

Ex.:  Senn  jtc^  bie  S5Hfer  felftfl  iefrein,  ha  fann  bic  SKo^Ifa^rt  nic^t  gebei^n 
(Sch.).  SiBenn  bu  aI<S  SJJann  bie  9BijTenf(^aft  ^txmt^x\i,  fo  fann  betn  ©o:^n  ju  p^Vem 
3iel  Qelangen  (F.  1063).  Scr  miebe  nid^t,  mm  er^^  umge^en  fann,  bae  5tu§crf!e 
(Sch.).    <So  bu  fampfejl  ritterlic^,  freut  beln  alter  SJater  ftc^  (Stolberg). 

1.  Other  forms  of  the  conditional  clause  are  the  inverted  order,  the 
imperative,  and  the  normal  order  vv^ith  benn  +  subjunctive  (=  if .  .  .  not, 
unless ;  sec  336, 1).  (Set  im  SBeft^e  unb  bu  iDO^nfi  im  S^iec^t  (Sch.),  Possession 
is  nine  points  of  the  law.  2)em  Uekn  ®otte  loeid^^  nid^t  au^,  ftnb^fl  bu  i^n  auf 
bem  SB  eg  (Sch.). 

2.  aBofern  nid^t,  auper  wenn,  e^  fet  benn  ba§,  if  not,  unless,  denote  an  ex- 
ception to  a  statement  true  in  general.  "Btx  SBolf  ijl  ^armlo^,  auper  wenn  er 
hunger  t)at.    See  336,  1. 

3.  Sometimes  the  preterit  ind.  is  substituted  for  the  unreal  subjunc- 
tive in  the  dependent  or  in  the  main  clause  or  in  both.     Its  force  is 


343]  GENERAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  147 

assurance,  certainty.  %xaf  eitt  ^mVi^  mcin  ©eftc^t,  ac^,  fo  UW  id^  fic^er  nic^t 
(Gleim).  ^it  biefem  9JfeiI  burd>j'd^o^  ic^  6ud^,  mm  i^  mein  liebe^  ^inb  getrofen 
l^attc  (Sch.).  D  warfl  bu  wa'^r  gewefen  unb  gerabe,  nie  fam  e«  ba^in,  atted  fliinbe 
anber^  (Sch.). 

4.  Contracted  and  abbreviated  forms :  ©ntworfen  Ih^  t|l^^  ein  gemetner 
gre»el;  ijottfii^rt  ifl^^  ein  unflerMic^  Unternebmen  (Sch.).  SBenn  nic^t,  two  nic^t, 
tt)0  ntoglic^  are  very  common.  SBir  »erfud^ten  i^n  l»o  moglic^  ju  krul^igen,  mnn 
nic^t  ganj  ju  entfernen. 

For  the  tenses  see  also  275-280. 

WORD-ORDER. 

341.  We  distinguisli  three  principal  word-orders  according 
to  the  position  of  subject  and  verb: 

1.  The  normal,  viz.,  subject  —  verb. 

2.  The  inverted,  viz.,  verb  —  subject. 

3.  The  dependent,  viz.,  verb  at  the  end. 

(By  "  verb  "  we  shall  understand  for  the  sake  of  brevity  the  personal  part  and  by 
"predicate"  the  non-personal  part  of  the  verb,  viz.,  participle  and  infinitive.) 

342.  The  normal  occurs  chiefly  in  main  sentences :  T)tv 
SBint  m^*  It  is  identical  with  the  dependent  order  if  there 
is  only  subject  and  verb  in  the  dependent  clause.  T)it  Wixi^U 
ge^t,  tweil  ter  SCinb  m% 

343.  The  inverted  order  occurs  both  in  main  and  depend- 
ent clauses:  ®e|t  Me  WlMt  ?  Se^t  ter  SBint,  (fo)  ge^t  Me  Mvi\^U. 
It  occurs  : 

a.  In  a  question. 

b.  In  optative  and  imperative  sentences. 

c.  In  dependent  clauses,  mainly  conditional  and  after  aU  + 
subjunctive,  when  there  is  no  conjunction  like  mnn,  oh,  etc. 

d.  If  for  any  reason,  generally  a  rhetorical  one,  any  other 
word  but  the  subject,  or  if  a  whole  clause,  head  the  sentence. 

e.  For  impressiveness  the  verb  stands  first. 
Examples  with  adjuncts  (objects,  adverbs,  etc.)  added: 


148  GENERAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [343- 

a.  (Sc^reibt  ter  greunb  ?  53leiBt  kr  !Diener  nic^t  lattge  au^?  Sa^ 
f(^ret6t  tir  ter  greunt  ? 

But  when  the  inquiry  is  as  to  the  subject  the  normal  order  stands  of 
course.    2Ber  f(|ret()t  einen  S3rief?   Sai3  ijl  ber  langen  0tebe  furjer  ©inn?  (Sch.). 

b.  WoQt  nte  tier  2:ag  erfc^einen,  mnn  be^  raukn  ^rtege^  ^orben 
liefer  flillc  2:^1  turc^tokn  (Sch.).  For  more  examples,  see 
284,  1,  2. 

But  the  inverted  order  is  not  required:  '^it  2(if)\  ber  S^ropfen,  bte  er  ^egt, 
fei  euren  Sagen  jugelegt !  (F.  989-990). 

c.  SBttlft  Du  genau  erfa^ren  wa^  ft(^  jtemt,  fo  frage  nut  ki  etien 
grauen  an  (G.).  5Birb  man  n?o  (=trgentwo)  gnt  aufgenommen, 
muf  man  nit^t  glei(^  ujieterlommen  (Wolff).  (Sr)  @trtd)  trauf  ein 
©pange,  ^ett^  unt  Sting',  aU  njdren'g  eben  ^fifferltng' ;  ban!f  nidjt 
ttJeniger  unb  ni($t  me^r,  aU  oh'^  ein  ^or6  »oa  ^^luffe  n>dr'  (F.  2843-6). 

Notice  here  the  inversion  after  aU  alone,  but  dependent  order  after 
ftl^  o5.    See  340,  1 ;  also  F.  1132-25, 1962-3. 

But  for  emphasis  and  to  add  vividness,  the  normal  is  still  possible  : 
!Du  fle^ej^  jlitt,  er  mrUt  auf;  bu  fpric^j!  i^n  an,  er  flrett  an  bir  ^inauf  (F.  1168-9). 
This  is  mere  parataxis. 

d.  T)n  5Bot|(^aft  pr'  [6:,  mo^l,  aUein  mir  fe^lt  ber® lank  (F.  765). 
Srnft  ijl  M^  Mm,  ^eiter  ift  bie  ^unft  (Sch.).  ^i(^  ()at  mein  ^er^ 
betrogen  (id.).  2Co  aBer  ein  ^a^  ift,  M  ^erfammcln  ft^  bie  2lbler  (B.). 
Deine^  ®eifte5  ^ah'  ic^  einen  ipaui^  ijerfriirt  (Uh.).  See  also  F.  860- 
1,  1174-5,  1236.  iiBerfe'^en  fann  (Sa^Iu^  bie^  ©emdibe  nid^t  ^aUn 
(Le.).  ©ef^rteBen  fte|t:  „3m  Slnfang  mx  bag  Sort"  (F.  1224). 
See  also  236,  3. 

1.  The  main  clause,  inserted  in  any  statement  or  following  it,  has  in- 
version according  to  this  rule.  Xia^,  fpri(^t  er,  ijl  fein  Slufent^alt,  )X)a^  fbrbert 
^immelan  (Sch.).  SBie  feib  i^r  glutfUc^,  ebler  ®raf,  ^u^  er  ijoU  5lrgUfl  an  (id.). 
For  emphasis  the  speaker  can  insert  a  clause  uninverted  :  2)enn,  id)  luei^ 
e^,  er  ijl  ber  ® liter  bie  er  bereinfl  erBt,  Wert  (H.  and  D.,  III.  53). 

2.  The  coordinating  conjunctions  aBer,  atlein,  benn,  namli(^>  ober,  fonbernf 
unb  standing  generally  at  the  head  of  the  sentence,  any  adverb  with  the 
force  of  an  elliptical  sentence  (jwar,  ja,  etc.,  having  generally  a  comma 


345]  GENERAL  SYl^TTAX — WORD-ORDER.  149 

after  them)  call  for  no  inversion.  After  enttveber  there  is  option.  Ex.: 
Sl&er  bie  ^unfl  ^at  in  ben  neueren  Beiten  ungleic^  meitere  ©renjen  cr'^alten  (Le.). 
3»ar  cuer  S3art  ift  frau«,  boc^  ^ebt  i^r  md)t  bie  JRiegel  (F.  671).  ^^itrwa^r !  i^ 
bin  ber  einjtgc  ©o^n  nur  (H.  and  D.,  IV.  91).  3a,  mir  f)at  e^  ber  ®eijl  gefagt 
(id.,  IV.  95).    2)entt  bie  2«anner  fmb  ^eftig  (id.,  IV.  148). 

3.  When  the  dependent  clause  precedes,  the  main  clause  can  for  em- 
phasis and  very  frequently  colloquially  have  the  normal  order.     Ex. : 

^viitte  er  bie  Itrfac^en  biefe^  affgemeinen  5lberglauben^  an  ©^affpere^^  (Bd^iln^eiten 
aud&  fiefu^t,  er  toitrbe  |te  Mh  gefunben  ^abtn  (Le.). 

€.  §at  bie  ^onigin  toc^  ntc^t^  ijorau^  »or  bent  gemeinen  55ur(^eni?eiBe 
(Sch.).  <Bk^m  toxt  ^elfen  bo^  ^mi  Wdnmv  gegen  einanber !  (H.  and 
D.,  IV.  229).     Generally  contains  bo(^. 

344.  The  dependent  order  occurs  only  in  dependent 
clauses.  The  clause  begins  with  a  relative  or  interrogative 
pronoun  which  may  be  preceded  by  a  preposition  ;  with  a 
relative  or  interrog.  adverb;  or  with  a  subordinating  conjunc- 
tion. Ex. :  3Benn  i^  nicfct  2tle):anber  n?are,  modjte  t(^  n?o^l  Diogenes 
fein,  3^  ntet)r  er  hat,  je  me^r  er  witi  (Claudius).  ®o  ftolj  id)  Bin, 
ntu§  tc^  mir  felbfl  9eftet)n  t  berglet^en  ^ab^  i(^  nte  gefe^n  (G.).  Sie 
fo(($e  tiefgeprcigte  33i(ber  co(^  ^u  3^^^^^  in  nn^  fd^tafen  Ibnnen,  H^  ein 
SBort,  eirt  Saut  fie  juedt  (Le.).     See  also  F.  2015-18,  2062. 

345.  The  dependent  order  does  not  occur  in  main  clauses, 
but  it  is  not  the  only  order  of  the  dependent  clause. 

1.  The  verb  precedes  two  infinitives.  One  may  be  the  past 
participle  of  a  modal  auxiliary.  Ex.:  ^ann  x6>  »ergej[en,n?ie'^ 
ptte  fommen  fonnen?  (Sch.).  X;ag  ein  SHenfc^  bo(^  einen  9)^enfc^en 
(o  »erlegen  foil  mad)en  fonnen!  (Le.). 

a.  But  in  this  case  and  in  other  compound  tenses  the  *'  verh  "  (i.  e.,  the 
personal  part)  may  also  stand  between  the  participle  and  the  other  aux- 
iliary or  the  infinitive,  e.  g.,  roeil  ber  ^aufntann  ba^  $au^  fott  gefauft  ^akn  or 
gefauft  fott  ^akn  (in  poetry).    ®efauft  ^afeen  foE  is  the  common  order. 

2.  The  normal  order  may  stand: 

1.   Li  dependent  clauses  containing  indirect  speech.     Sr 


150  GEN^ERAL  SYN^TAX — WORD-ORDER.  [346- 

^hiiU,  ©lalfpere  l)aU  33rutu^  inm  ipelcen  te^  ©tiicfe^  ma&im  milm 
(La). 

2.  In  a  second  or  third  dependent  clause.     See  358. 

3.  In  certain  clauses  with  negative  force  containing  an 
enclitic  „t)enn";  e^  fei  tenn  ta§  +  dependent  order.     See  336.- 

4.  In  substantive  clauses :  (53ott  n?ei§,  id)  bin  nid^t  fd^ult)  (Le.). 
This  is  mere  parataxis  without  conjunction. 

346.  The  auxiliaries  Ijahm  and  fein  are  also  frequently 
dropped  in  dependent  clauses  to  avoid  an  accumulation  of 
verbal  forms,  both  in  prose  and  poetry.  Lessing,  Goethe, 
and  Klopstock,  especially  the  first,  drop  the  auxiliary  very 
freely  and  skillfully. 

Ex.:  SSie  wnBegreiflt(^  i(^  »ott  i^m  Beleitigt  n?ort)en  (supply  Bin 
here  or  before  Beleiuigt)  nnfe  no(^  iuerbe  (Le.).  ^bglid),  taj  ter 
55ater  W  Zi^xmnt'i  te^  e  i  n  e  n  9iing^  nic^t  langer  in  feinem  ipaufe 
(supply  l)at)  tulten  ftJoUen  (id.). 

347.  The  dependent  order  in  main  clauses  is  archaic  and  poetic. 
Ex.  :  ©tegfrieb  ben  jammer  mi)i  [(^wingen  funnt  (dialect  for  fonnte)  (Uh.). 
Ura^ne,  ®ro§mutter,  Wlutttx  unb  ^inb  in  bumpfer  ©tube  kifammen  |inb  (Schwab). 

348.  1.  The  inverted  order  in  the  conditional  clause  and  in  a  main  clause  for  the 
sake  of  impressiveness  has  sprung  from  the  order  of  the  question.  Compare,  for 
instance :  1.  3ft  bcr  greunb  treu  ?  (question).  2.  3ft  bev  gvcunb  trcu  ?  (question).  63ut, 
fo  wtrb  er  mir  beifte^en.  3.  3ft  i>ev  S-reunb  tveu  (conditional  clause),  fo  wirb  ev  miv  6eiftcl}cn. 
4.    3ft  mir  ber  greunb  bo*  treu  geBUebeit !  (impressive  inversion). 

2.  The  main  clause  has  inversion  when  the  dependent  clause  precedes,  because  it 
generally  begins  with  an  adverb  like  fo,  bann,  etc.  ©e^^ft  bit  ni(^t,  fo  t:^ufl  bit  Uuvcdjt. 
Without  fo,  the  inversion  really  ceases.  Hence  we  say,  the  normal  order  may  still 
stand  for  emphasis.  But  fo,  etc.,  were  so  frequent  that  inversion  became  the  rule. 
Inversion  is  therefore  limited  originally  to  the  question  and  to  the  choice  of  placing 
the  emphatic  part  of  the  sentence  where  it  will  be  most  prominent. 

349.  1.  The  dependent  order  was  in  O.  H.  G.  by  no  means  limited  to  the  dependent 
clause.  Toward  the  10th  century  it  begins  to  become  rarer  in  the  main  clause.  In 
early  M.  H.  G.  it  became  limited  to  the  dependent  clause,  so  that  now  we  may  justly 
call  it  the  "  dependent-clause  order. '^ 

2.  The  verb  at  the  end  is,  no  doubt,  a  great  blemish  of  German  style— second  only 
to  the  separation  of  the  little  prefix  of  separable  compound  verbs,  which  may  turn  up 
after  many  intervening  parts  at  the  close  of  the  sentence.  According  to  Delbrftck,  the 
dependent  order— subject,  object,  verb— was  the  primitive  one,  still  in  force  in  Latin. 


352]  GE:ffERAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  151 

General  Rules  for  the  Order  of  other  Parts  of  the 
Sentence  besides  Subject  and  Verb. 

Position  of  the  Predicate. 

350.  The  predicate,  be  it  an  adjective,  a  substantive,  par- 
ticiple, infinitive,  or  separable  prefix  of  a  compound  verb  or 
the  first  element  of  a  loosely  compounded  verb,  stands  at  the 
end  of  a  main  clause  in  a  simple  tense.  The  adjuncts  of  the 
predicate,  such  as  objects,  adverbs,  stand  between  verb  and 
predicate. 

Ex.:  ^Der  @enne  mu§  fc^eiben,ter  ©ommer  ifi  ^in  (Sch.).  3^^^  f^i^ 
tin  Wlti^ta  (id.).  @r  ^at  ^erlor^ne  SJorte  nur  gefproi^en  (id.),  ^etn 
©d^ilC  finij  btefen  ^ort)ftreid)  auf  (id.).  (Straflofe  ^rci^^eit  fprt(^t  ben 
©itten  ^o^n  (id.),    ©eftern  fanb  ein  ©agner^^Sonce'rt  ftatt* 

In  tlie  dependent  clause  only  the  verb  changes  position,  subject  and 
predicate  remain  as  in  the  main  clause,  and  the  adjuncts  stand  between 
them.  For  instance :  ®tautt  ha^  nic^t !  S^r  werbet  biefe^  ^ampfci^  ©nbe  mm^^ 
mer  erMtcfen  (Sch.),  becomes  ®laubt  nid^t,  bap  i^r  biefes?  ^am^jfesS  (Snbe  ie  erblicfen 
mxhtt, 

351.  In  the  compound  tense  the  separable  prefix  immedi- 
ately precedes  the  participle,  be  it  in  a  main  or  in  a  dependent 
clause.  !I^reifi9  3a^re  ^aben  iinr  jufammen  au^gelebt  unb  au^ge^alten 
(Sch.).    £)ie  (E^olera  will  (is  about  to)  ii'ber^ant*  ne^men.  See  137. 

Order  of  Objects  and  Cases. 

352.  a.  Case  of  a  person  before  a  case  of  the  thing.  5l6er 
au&j  no(^  bann  .  ♦  .  fu^r  ber  ^aifer  fort,  ben  ©tdnben  ben  ?5ncben  ju 
geigen  (Sch.). 

b.  Case  of  a  pronoun  before  a  noun.  Wan  Beftimmte  fie 
(them)  bem  aUgemeinen  Unmillen  ^nm  t)pin  (Sch.). 

c.  The  dative  stands  before  the  accusative;  if  both  are  per- 
sons, the  accusative  may  stand  before  the  dative.  (£r  fel6fl 
l^atte  bem  Tienfte  biefe^  ipaufe^  feine  erften  ?5^I^3ug^  gemibmet  (Sch.). 


152  GENEEAL   SYJSTTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [353- 

d.  The  accusative-object  stands  before  remoter  objects,  a 
genitive  or  a  preposition  +  case.  But  see  also  a.  W(kn  mo^te 
fagen,  3SoItaire  :^a6e  ein  ^efiiW  »on  ter  2Ci(^tig!eit  biefer  ^erfonlt(^fett 
gel)abt  (H.  Grimm).  Die  ©(^iilerin  fc^rteb  einen  Stuffa^  iiber  l)en 
SSinter* 

e.  As  to  pronouns,  pd)  stands  generally  before  e^,  and  both 
before  every  other  pronoun.  The  personal  pronoun  stands 
before  the  demonstrative.  The  personal  and  fid)  may  stand 
before  the  subject,  if  it  be  a  noun,  in  the  inverted  and  depend- 
ent orders.  Sr  ^at  fid)  e^  angeeignet.  ^rummau  (a  proper  name) 
ttd^ert  ft(^  t^m  (Sch.).  5Cer  liarf  ft(^  fo  etma^  eriauben  ?  S^nem  ben 
S3eg  aw  bent  Bbm{fd)en  3;^rone  3U  ijerf(^Uegen,  ergriff  man  bie  SBaffen 
f(^on  unter  ?D^att^ta^  (Sch.).  2Ba^  i^m  bie  i?ergro§erte  3)lad)t  ber 
©tanbe  (estates)  oxi  @elbftt^dtig!eit  no(^  it6rig  lief,  ^ielten  feine 
Slgnaten  (relatives)  unter  einem  fc^impflii^en  3^^<^"9  (id-)-  -^^^  M 
bie  Slotte  ergeben  ?    ^aft  bu  ei$  i^m  tt)ieber  gegeben  ? 

1.  c  also  includes  the  personal  pronouns :  3Bie  fonnt^  id)  o'^nc  Beugen  nttc& 
i^r  na^n  ?  (Sch.).     The  rules  a,  c,  d  are  by  no  means  strict. 

353.  For  the  position  of  the  adjective,  see  the  use  of  the 
adjective,  194,  212.  Notice  that  what  depends  upon  an 
adjective,  participle,  or  infinitive  precedes  these.  Die  Sng^ 
Idnber  pwb  i^rem  iperrfc^er^aufe  ergeben.  3wm  ©e^en  geBorcn,  gum 
©djauen  Beftettt,  bem  2:urme  gefc^moren,  gefdUt  mir  bie  2Belt  (G.). 
'Mx  kten  i^n,  Un  33rief  auf  bie  ^oft  gu  geben.  (®^af|>ere'^  2Ber!e 
fmb)  feine  Siugenble^ren,  in  ^apitel  gebrac^t  unb  bur(^  rebenbe  (£yem))el 
erldutert  (Le.). 

Position  of  Adverbs. 

354.  In  general,  adverbs  stand  before  the  words  they 
qualify.  The  modal  adverbs  nid^t,  dtQO.,  gnjar,  fc^on,  tt?oI,  etc., 
and  the  adverbs  of  time  immer,  fd)on,  je^t,  nie,  nimmer  stand 
generally  immediately  before  the  predicate  or  in  place  of  it  if 
there  is  none'.    Die^  33i(bnig  ift  bejauBemb  fc^bn  (Mozart's  '^CkMUx^ 


358]  GENERAL  SYKTAX — WORD-ORDER.  153 

flotc)  Sin  fe^r  T^eftiger  ^ujlen  greift  tiert  ^ranfen  flar!  an*  ^a« 
fc^mere  ^erj  n?irt)  nxM  trnri^  SBorte  ki(%t  (Sch. ).  ©(^on  i?iele  2:age 
fe:^^  ic^  e^  fc^meigenli  an  (id.).  3c^  ^cibe  euc^  no^  nie  erfannt  (B.). 
^aft  l)tt  t^n  ttO(^  ni(^t  6efuc[)t  ?  (Notice  the  opposite  of  the  Eng- 
lish order  in  "  never  yet,"  "  not  yet.") 

355.  An  adverb  of  time  stands  before  one  of  place,  and 
both  before  one  of  manner.  Ex. :  3Sie(e  33auem  mxm  gepern 
nac^  fcer  <Statt  ju  Maxtti  gefa^ren*  3Cir  fa^ren  tnorgen  per  Sifenba^^n 
nad)  9tut)o(pat)t,   (S^  tanjt  fid)  auf  biefem  glatten  ^u§bol)en  nid^t  fe^r  gut* 

1.  Of  several  adverbs  of  time  or  place  the  more  general  precede  the 
more  specific.  2Btr  reifen  ntorgen  frit^  urn  6  U^x  59  2)?inutett  aB.  !Der  9)oIijifi 
fanb  ben  S3etrun!enen  auf  ber  ^a|rf!ra§e  im  S)re(fe  liegen. 

2.  Adverbs  of  time  precede  objects  when  these  are  nouns,  but  pro- 
nouns precede  all  adverbs.  Sir  feiern  balb  ben  4ten  Suit,  ben  Sag  ber  Unat-^ 
^angigfeitaerflarung.    Sir  foffen  ii^n  morgen  auf  bem  SBal^n^^ofe  ju  trefen* 

356.  Only  obex,  namlic^,  iebo^,  and  a  few  others,  can  sepa- 
rate subject  and  verb.  Ex. :  Der  9ii(^ter  akr  fprad)  (Le.).  Xk 
9?ac^tigatl  jeboc^  fmgt  n?unberf^ijn» 

357.  As  to  the  position  of  the  prepositions,  they,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  precede  the  noun  ;  when  they  follow  the  noun 
has  been  stated  under  Prepositions.  See,  for  instance,  303, 
7,  8,  10. 

Position  of  Clauses. 

358.  Dependent  clauses  have,  in  general,  the  positions  of 
those  parts  of  speech  and  of  the  sentence  which  they  repre- 
sent, i.  e.,  the  substantive  clause  standing  for  the  subject  or 
object  has  the  position  of  the  subject  or  the  object  in  the  sen- 
tence, etc.  No  special  rules  are  needed  for  them.  When 
there  are  several  dependent  clauses,  the  last  often  takes  for 
variety  the  normal  order  introduced  by  unt). 

The  following  examples  show  well-placed  dependent  clauses  :  ^ein 
^aifer  !ann,  wa3  unfer  if^,  uerfc^enfen  (Sch.).    SJerftegelt  i^ab^  i^^i  unb  »erhieft, 


154  GEN^ERAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [359- 

l>af  er  ntcin  guter  ©ngel  ifl  (id.).  ®ie  e^r\  bte  i^m  gebiirt,  geb^  ic^  i^nt  gem;  baa 
^ec^t  baa  er  jtc^  nimmt,  ijeweigrMcl  i^m  (id.).  2l(a  id)  jiinger  tt>ar,  liehe  i(^  nic^ta 
f0  fe^r,  aU  fftoma'm  (novels)  (G.).  9iii|cUcu  tt)u§te  fid)  baburd)  ju  bclfen,  ba§  er 
ben  ^einbfeligfeiten  jtx>tfc^en  6eibeu  ein  fc^teunigea  Snbe  mac^te  (Scli.).  -SHein  guter 
®etfl  kma'^rte  mic^  hMox,  bie  ^Jatter  an  ben  S3ufen  mir  ju  legen  (mir  before  bie 
IRatter  in  prose)  (id.).  S)er  Men^d)  bege^rt,  olleS  an  fic^  au  reiBen  (G.).  U^enn 
bantt  bie  roUenben  Ul^agen  l)orbeigefouft  finb  unb  man  prt  fie  nur  nod^  in  ber 
feme, . . .  (for  unb  man  fie . . .  prt  (Auerbach). 

359.  The  rules  given  can  hardly  be  abstracted  from  poetry.  Even  in  prose  they 
will  be  found  frequently  infringed.  Rhythm,  rhyme,  and,  in  prose,  emphasis  control  the 
•order  of  words  and  allow  of  much  choice.  But  students  translating  into  German  should 
iidhere  to  the  rules  very  strictly.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  German  word-order  coin- 
cides very  nearly  with  the  old  English,  and  does  not  differ  after  all  so  much  from  the 
modem  English  word-order.  The  chief  points  of  difference  are  the  dependent  order, 
<3ie  position  of  adverbs  of  time,  which  in  English  stand  generally  at  the  end,  and  the 
position  of  the  adjuncts  of  adjectives,  participles,  and  infinitives,  which  precede  the 
latter  instead  of  following  them  as  in  English. 

1.  The  word-order  required  by  certain  conjunctions  has  been  frequently  mentioned 
^  the  General  Syntax.    See,  for  instance,  320. 


SECOND     PART. 


ADVANCED    GRAMMAR. 


CONTAINING  PHONOLOGY,   HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON 

THE  ACCIDENCE,  HISTORY  OF  THE  LANGUAGE, 

AND  WORD-FORMATION. 


361]  PHOi^OLOGY.  157 

A.    PHONOLOGY. 

Historical  Notes  on  the  Orthography. 

360.  The  letters  used  in  Germany  are  the  strongly  modified  Latin 
(Roman),  called  "Gothic,"  in  vogue  all  over  Europe  during  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  when  printing  was  invented.  Germany  is  the  only  nation 
of  the  first  rank  which  retains  them,  and  for  this  reason  they  may  be 
justly  called  "  German  "  now.  In  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  they 
are  also  still  in  use  to  a  certain  extent.  Italy,  France,  England  and 
Holland  abandoned  the  ugly  "  Gothic  "  alphabet  very  early  and  returned 
to  the  Roman.  The  German  people  and  the  more  conservative  among 
the  scholars  make  the  retention  of  the  "  German  "  letters  a  matter  of 
patriotism. 

1.  An  edition  of  SchUler  in  Latin  type  ruined  a  Leipzig  publislier  twenty  years  ago. 
Yet  in  the  18th  century  much  literature  was  printed  in  Latin  type.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact,  stated  by  a  correspondent  of  the  "  Evening  Post"  of  New  York,  that  the  first 
German  book  published  in  America  was  printed  in  Latin  type  by  Benjamin  Franklin. 
It  was  a  sectarian  hymn-book,  "  Harfe  Zions.'" 

3.  Nearly  all  German  scientific  books  are  printed  in  h.  type  to-day, 
because  all  scholars  and  civilized  nations  that  would  read  such  books  are 
accustomed  to  this  type.  Grimm  advocated  it  strongly  and  had  all  his 
books  printed  in  it.  Koherstein' s  Literaturgeschichte  ;  Bauer's,  Krause's, 
and  Wilmanns'  grammars  are  printed  in  it.  That  G.  type  was  not  ban- 
ished from  the  schools  by  the  new  ''Rules"  is  due  to  the  personal 
prejudice  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  German  Empire,  who,  not  long  ago, 
when  a  publisher  sent  to  him  a  book  in  Latin  type,  returned  it,  because 
it  was  more  troublesome  for  him  to  read  than  German  type. 

3.  German  children  therefore  still  continue  to  learn  to  read  eight  alphabets  and  to 
write  in  four,  viz.,  capital  and  small  Latin  script,  and  capital  and  small  German  script 
In  the  Swiss  schools  German  type  and  script  have  just  been  given  up.  The  Latin  type 
and  script  seem  bound  to  prevail  in  Germany  before  very  long. 

361.  The  German  alphabet  represents  the  sounds  of  the  language 
more  adequately  than  the  English  does  the  English  sounds,  but  that  is 
not  saying  much.  In  no  living  language  do  the  signs  keep  step  with  the 
sounds  ;  they  are  always  behind,  nowhere  more  so  than  in  English.    But 


.158  PHONOLOGY.  [362- 

in  German  also  are  several  signs  for  the  same  sound  and  one  sign  may 
have  to  stand  for  several  sounds.  For  instance,  6)  in  „ad)"  and  „x^,''  n  in 
funf,  fanb,  fang,  denote  different  sounds  ;  ^,  f,  ff,  §  stand  for  the  same  sound  ; 
also  d  (short)  and  e.  The  long  vowel  is  indicated  by  doubling  in  8aal,  SSoot, 
Seet;  by  |  in  SBa^l  aBo^l,  2Be^,  and  not  at  all  in  ^6^,  ^u^,  ^ut.  And  yet, 
while  German  spells  more  phonetically  than  English,  its  standard  of 
spelling  is  as  uncertain  as  the  English,  if  not  more  so. 

1,  In  1876  an  orthographical  conference  was  called  at  Berlin,  which  was  to  discuss 
certain  modifications  and  propositions  aiming  at  uniformity,  laid  before  them  by 
R.  von  Kaumer.  They  met  and  agreed  upon  certain  rules,  which  proved,  however, 
unacceptable  both  to  the  government  and  the  public. 

2.  In  1879  and  1880  the  various  governments  in  Germany  took  the 
matter  in  hand  and  prescribed  the  spelling  to  be  followed  in  their  schools. 
Thus  we  have  Prussian,  Bavarian,  Saxon,  Austrian  rules,  but  they  vary" 
very  little.  The  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg  alone,  with  true  Suabian 
tenacity,  still  clings  to  the  old  spellings.  Some  seven  millions  of  chil- 
dren, therefore,  now  have  to  learn  spelling  according  to  these  official 
rules.  All  new  school-books  must  be  spelt  according  to  them.  In- 
fluential journals  and  periodicals  have  taken  up  the  matter.  The 
excellent  new  edition  of  the  classics  now  appearing  in  Gotta's  '*  Bihliothek 
der  Weltliteratur"  is  spelt  accordingly.  While  these  "Rules"  leave 
much  to  be  wished  for,  yet  no  one  can  deny  that  some  of  them  are  a 
great  step  in  advance.  They  change  the  spelling  about  as  much  as  the 
five  rules  for  modified  spellings  of  the  American  Spelling  Reform  Asso- 
ciation would  change  English  spelling.  This  grammar  is  spelt  accord- 
ing to  the  rules.  We  shall  not  give  them,  since  they  can  be  so  easily 
obtained.    For  title  of  the  speller,  see  37. 

A  few  explanatory  remarks  are  given  on  certain  points. 
362.     Umlaut  signs. 

Of  the  numerous  signs  in  M.  H.  G.  only  two  are  left,  viz.,  e  after  and  " 
over  the  vowel ;  e  is  to  be  discarded  now  entirely  even  with  capitals,  after 
which  it  was  generally  put.  Umlaut  of  a  was  always  e,  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  e,  which  is  old  e.  In  N.  H.  G.  a  has  been  put  for  e  in  words 
whose  connection  with  words  containing -a  was  transparent.  SJater,  pi. 
SJciter,  but  SJetter;  alt,  alter,  but  ©Item;  5Kann,  ?Kanner,  but  3)?cnfc(). 

1.  Dictionaries  and  encyclopedias  often  put  i,  ^  after  ab,  ?tb,  which  is  very  annoy- 
ing. Unfortunately  none  of  the  umlauts  have  a  fixed  place  in  the  alphabet.  They 
stand  generally  mixed  up  with  a,  o,  u. 


364]  PHONOLOGY.  159 

3.  R  was  ae,  a,  ct  in  M.  H.  G.  5  was  rarely  marked ;  o  was  oe^oe,  o  ; 
it,  also  frequently  not  marked,  was  n,  ue,  it,  u.  The  stroke  over  ,^  is  the 
remnant  of  o  over  u,  which  stood  for  the  diphthong  ito.  This  became  ii 
in  N.  H.  G.  (see  488,  4),  hence  the  stroke. 

363.  On  the  marks  to  show  length. 

1.  M.  H.  G.  ie  >  t,  but  the  sign  te  of  the  old  diphthong  remained  and 
was  put  also  where  i  was  lengthened  as  in  kil  >  ^kl,  spil  >  ©j)iel. 

2.  ^  was  used  as  a  sign  of  length  for  several  reasons.  1.  It  became 
silent  as  in  je^n,  ©^ma^er,  fe^en,  gebei^en.  It  stands  frequently  now,  where 
an  old  I  or  w  was  dropped,  as  in  hlu'i)tn,  Oiu^e,  broken,  ^u'^,  vStrof),  but  it 
is  not  pronounced.  The  preceding  vowel  was  long  originally,  or  became 
long  according  to  the  general  vowel-lengthening.  See  488,2.  2.  O.H.G. 
th  (=  Eng.  th)  passed  into  d.  This  sign  after  the  sound  had  changed 
appears  still  in  the  M.  G.  of  the  12th  and  in  the  succeeding  centuries, 
and  stands  not  only  for  b  but  also  for  t. 

3.  Since  the  15th  century  many  MSS.  have  regularly  f^  for  t,  and  this 
t^  was  used  indiscriminately  whether  the  vowel  after  or  before  it  was 
long  or  short,  when  printing  was  invented.  In  the  16th  and  17th  centu- 
ries t^  was  very  frequent.  Whether  the  breath-glide  (aspiration)  after  t 
was  then  pronounced,  and  if  so,  whether  it  was  appreciated  and  expressed 
by  I),  is  a  question.  Paul  thinks  this  was  the  case.  It  would  then  be  a 
development  parallel  to  the  Eng.  t  in  tch  for  ch  {=  tsh).  Certain  it  is 
that  ^  after  t  was  no  "  dehnungs-\)  "  originally.  In  2Btrt^  and  3:^urm,  still 
in  vogue,  in  older  t^anne  (=  %amt),  tt)ifd)  (=  Slifd)),  gart^en  (=  ®arten),  I) 
could  not  be  "  dehnungs-^."  The  grammarians  of  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies began  to  consider  it  a  dehnungs-^  and  tried  to  limit  its  use.  It  has 
lost  ground  with  every  coming  generation,  and  it  is  a  pity  that  the  offi- 
cial spelling  does  not  abolish  it  entirely. 

4.  The  doubling  of  vowels  is  the  oldest  method  to  show  length.  U,  ti 
and  the  umlauts  are  never  doubled. 

364.  The  use  of  initial  capitals. 

This  is  a  self-imposed  task  of  great  difficulty  and  „toj)fierBrc^en.«  In 
the  MSS.  capitals  were  only  used  for  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph, 
sometimes  of  each  line  ;  so  also  in  the  early  printed  books,  in  which  the 
capitals  were  added  by  hand.  In  1529  Kolross  prescribed  capitals  for 
the  beginning  of  every  sentence,  for  proper  names,  for  „®ott"  and  w^err'* 


160  PHONOLOGY— THE  VOWELS.  [365- 

(Lord),  as  he  says  w®ott  ju  eeren  unb  rcijerentj.''  Soon  capitals  spread  over 
appellatives,  then  over  neuter  nouns,  and  then  over  the  abstract.  In  the 
17th  century  every  noun  and  any  part  of  speech  that  could  possibly  be 
construed  as  such  got  a  capital.  English  can  boast  of  some  superfluous 
capitals  in  the  names  of  the  months,  days  of  the  week,  points  of  the 
compass,  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns,  but  German  carries  off 
the  palm  among  the  languages  of  civilized  nations.  The  oflS.cial  spelling 
reduces  capitals  considerably. 

365.  The  spelling  of  foreign  words  is  in  a  hopeless  muddle.  There 
is  no  system  and  no  rule.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  there  is  a  prefer- 
ence of  one  spelling  over  the  other.  The  official  spelling  leaves  much 
liberty. 

ANALYSIS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  GERMAN  SOUNDS. 

366.  In  Part  1.  we  have  treated  of  the  alphabet  and  the  pronunciation  of  the  letters 
in  the  traditional  way.  But  this  way  is  quite  unscientific  and  is  barely  sufficient  to  start 
the  student  in  reading.  To  describe  the  sounds  of  a  language,  however,  is  not  an  easy 
matter.  If  the  instructor  were  acquainted  with  the  Bell-Sweet  system  as  presented  in 
Sweet's  "Handbook  of  Phonetics,"  Oxford,  1877  and  in  Sweet's  "Sound-Notation," 
the  matter  would  be  comparatively  easy  and  might  be  disposed  of  within  small  space. 
The  system  analyzes  the  vowels  as  well  as  the  consonants  according  to  the  position  of 
the  organs,  for  nothing  is  more  delusive  than  to  "  catch  "  vowels  by  the  sound  alone 
as  is  generally  done.  Sweet's  Hdbk.  gives  specimens  of  German,  French,  English, 
Dutch,  Danish,  Icelandic,  and  Swedish,  transcribed  in  Latin  type,  and  if  the  student 
have  a  little  perseverance,  these  transcriptions  will  be  a  great  help  to  him  in  learning 
to  pronounce  any  of  the  above  languages. 

The  system  uses  none  of  those  big  Latin  terms,  which  hide  a  multitude  of  inaccu- 
racies and  which  are  so  much  afiected  by  philologians. 

The  Vowels. 

367.  1.  The  most  tangible  quality  of  vowels  is  "  round- 
ness," produced  by  the  rounding  of  the  mouth-cavity  in  that 
region  where  the  vowel  is  made.  Pronounce  ie  of  33iene,  round 
it  and  you  have  ii  of  33u^tie,  Pronounce  e  of  53eete,  and  round 
it  and  you  have  b  of  33ote.  Pronounce  a  of  falter,  round  it  and 
you  have  o  of  goiter*  In  o  is  very  little  lip-rounding  (labializa- 
tion), but  mostly  cheek  or  inner  rounding. 

2.  The  second,  but  less  palpable  quality,  of  vowels  is  "  nar- 
rowness."   Its  opposite  is  "  wideness."    A  vowel  is  "  narrow  " 


368]  PHOKOLOGT — THE  VOWELS.  161 

by  the  convexity  of  the  tongue  caused  by  a  certain  tenseness 
in  it.  It  is  "  wide "  when  the  tongue  hes  flat  and  relaxed. 
This  is  the  difference  between  i  of  53iene  and  i  of  Mn,  between 
long  ix  of  SJ^ii^Ie  and  short  u  of  5[Rutter,  between  o  of  ©o^le  and 
0  of  fod,  between  the  Eng.  vowels  of  "mare"  and  "man," 
"sought"  and  "sot." 

3.  The  third  important  element  in  producing  vowels  is  the 
position  of  the  tongue.  Two  positions  should  be  distin- 
guished, the  vertical  (height)  and  horizontal  (forwardness  or 
retraction).  In  each  we  distinguish  three  grades,  viz.,  "  high," 
"mid,"  and  "low"  ;  "back,"  "mixed,"  and  "front."  In  the 
vowels  of  „liegt/'  „Sic^t/'  „lugt/'  „£u(le"  the  tongue  is  "high"  and 
"  front " ;  in  the  vowels  of  „^u6^"  and  „^uc^t"  the  tongue  is 
"high"  but  "back."  The  table  on  next  page  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  the  German  vowels  to  each  other  and  also  to  the 
English  vowels. 

Key-words  for  Vowels. 

We  give  below  some  more  key-words,  some  hints  as  to  acquiring  the 
sounds  and  some  of  the  dialect-variations  in  pronunciation. 

High  Vowels. 

368.     1.  u  (high-back-narrow  round)  is  only  long.    Ex.: 

iput,  Xn^,  3flu^e,  U^u.  Short  it  is  rare  in  S.  G-.  Sautter,  ?^utter. 
Since  u  <  wo,  the  second  element  still  appears  in  S.  G.  as  eh 
(in  ®aBe),  but  this  pronunciation  is  not  classical.  See  Hart's 
Goethe's  prose,  p.  40.  Identical  with  Eng.  oo  in  too,  boot. 
Its  length  is  either  unmarked  or  indicated  by  ^,  e.  g.y  %u6>, 
ipu^n,  t^un.     It  is  never  doubled. 

2.  u  (high-back-wide-round)  is  identical  with  Eng.  u  in 
"full,"  but  for  a  stronger  labilization  in  G.  Ex.:  ^wikx, 
hunger,  ©|)ru(5^.  It  is  always  short.  The  u  pronounced  by  the 
extreme  N.  G.  is  rather  like  Eng.  w. 


162 


PHOKOLOGT— THE  VOWELS. 


i  high-front 

bitten 
E.bid 

hi 

1«     la 

p 

•So 

^ 

5 

^ 

^ 

^_^ 

P 

1 
-4 

It 

■2? 

•—I  o 

1 
a 

-a 

a? 

X 

a 

1 

A 

^<    *^ 

'S'^' 

U 

^ 

r<^ 

^H 

^W 

% 

<^ 

^ 

M 

eri        (h 

-^  ^ 

"o 

^O 

M 

1 

% 

^1 

:lfl 

II 

d 

^ 

-f^ 

Art 

^  d 

d 

2      A 

2  -  ® 

'^•s 

^^• 

1- 

•SI 

fiS 

%-^ 

OH 

•rt 

o 

S 

>»^ 

OJt® 

8 

^ 

'd 

{D 

1 

1 

a- 

a:s 

1 

1 

1 

-a 

3 

•g® 

o  a> 

t 

'a 

1 

13 

1 

o3  ■*^ 
'gW 

o 

^     8 
:3   w 

1^' 
a   « 

'■A 

P 

f3 

o 

O 

369J  PHOKOLOGY— THE  VOWELS.  163 

3.  y  (high-front-narrow  round).  This  differs  from  u  by 
having  the  tongue-position  of  T,  that  is,  it  is  high-front,  instead 
of  high-back.  Ex.:  ^iiten,  griifen,  Su§^»  Long  all  over  Ger- 
many, but  diphthongal  in  S.  G.  „®ute"  =  „®uete/'  which,  like 
ue  for  u,  is  not  classical,  though  old.  M.  and  S.  G.  rounding 
of  ii  is  not  so  emphatic  as  N.  G.,  so  that  ii  sounds  more  like  i. 
Its  length  is  sometimes  shown  by  ^,  oftener  unmarked.  Ex. : 
SWii^le,  ©tittle,  ipiite,  Zu6^tx, 

4.  y  (high-front-wide-round).  This  is  N.  G.  short  ii  in 
ipiitte,  Sliiffe,  etc.  S.  G.  short  it  is  only  slightly  rounded  and 
rather  the  short  of  their  long  narrow  ii,  and  therefore  itself 
narrow.  Extreme  N.  G.  ii  (in  Bremen,  Holstein,  etc.)  is  rather 
"mixed"  than  front.  The  first  ii  (N.  G.,  Hanover)  is  clas- 
sical. 

In  the  alphabet  the  u-umlauts  are  represented  by  u,  u§,  and  9,  as  in 

g)fu^e  (short),  3)fu^l  (long),  Sn^rte,  fi^'rif. 

369.  1.  i  (high-front-nan*ow).  The  same  all  over  Ger- 
many. Ex.:  ©teg,  mix,  »ier,  fte^»  Before  final  I  and  r  it  is 
slightly  diphthongal,  showing  a  "  vanish  "  or  "  glide ''  before 
the  consonant.  3SieI,  ttter  are  not  fil,  fir,  but,  marking  the 
voice-glide  by  ^,  fiy^l,  fi^^r.  (See  Sweet's  Hdbk.,  p.  133.) 
Always  long.  It  is  represented  by  i,  i^,  ie^,  but  generally  ie, 
Ex. :  ^ir,  i|r,  S3ier,  (lie^It. 

2.  i  (high-front-wide).  Peculiar  to  Hanover  and  M.  G.,  as 
in  Bin,  SBinK,  ^int>»  The  strict  Low  Germans  of  Holstein, 
Hamburg,  Bremen  lower  this  i  toward  e  as  in  Eng.,  making  it 
e^,  so  that  their  ^ittt)  sounds  much  like  kent.  In  S.  G.  neither 
I  occurs.  For  it  the  medium  long  narrow  i  is  substituted. 
Hence  a  S.  G.  pronunciation  of  Eng.  little  sounds  like  "  leetle," 
while  a  N.  G.  has  no  difficulty  with  it.  The  wide  i  of  Hanover 
and  M.  Germany  may  be  considered  classical.  Always  short. 
It  is  represented  by  i;  by  ie  in  ^ier^e^n,  ijieqig,  generally  also  in 
t)ietleic^t. 


164  PHOKOLOGY— THE  VOWELS.  [370- 

Mid  Vowels. 

370.  1.  o  (mid-back-narrow-round).  The  regular  German 
o  of  (Bo^n,  3:^ron,  ipof*  o  is  S.  G-.,  as  in  t)offen,  2o^,  toc^.  o  is 
represented  by  o,  o^,  oo»    Ex.:  5!)iont),  tt)0^nen,  ^oot, 

2.  0  (mid-back- wide-round).  6  of  M.  and  N.  G.,  where  S.  G. 
has  the  narrow  o.  Ex. :  (Sonne,  toll,  ^Btod.  This  and  b  are  per- 
haps the  most  difficult  vowels  for  Eng.  speakers.  Do  not 
lower  0  to  low-back,  making  it  like  Eng.  o  of  stock,  not.  Eng. 
o  is  equally  hard  for  N.  G.,  as  they  too  feel  that  the  effect  upon 
the  ear  is  much  the  same,  and  they  do  not  readily  appreciate 
the  difference  in  articulation. 

The  D-umlaut  has  very  different  shades  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. The  S.  G,  0,  whether  long  or  short,  is  narrow  (more  "close"). 
The  N.  G.  is  wide  (more  "open"). 

3.  o  (mid-front-narrow  round)  is  both  long  and  short  in 
S.  G.  Long  0  in  bofe,  lofen,  ©oet^e  ;  short  b  in  Sb^er,  ^bc^er, 
@tbc!e,     S.  G.  b  is  identical  with  Fr.  eu  in  feu. 

4.  a  (mid-front-wide -round)  is  long  and  short  in  N.  G. 
Long  b  in  fd)bn,  ?i)Ibi?c,  Sbtre ;  short  b  in  ®btter,  ©potter,  ©tbrc^e. 
Do  not  confound  b  with  the  vowels  of  Eng.  bust,  bird.  The 
0-umlauts  are  represented  by  b  and  b^ ;  by  eu  in  French  words: 
Souleu'r. 

Popularly  speaking,  S.  G.  B  is  closer  than  N.  6.  6.  To  acquire  the  sound  it  is  best 
to  start  with  S  as  in  „6eete"  and  contract  the  mouth  corners,  in  which  the  rounding 
mainly  consists  in  this  vowel,  and  „^bti"  will  have  to  result.  In  u  the  rounding  is 
mainly  in  the  lips  (labialization). 

In  Berlin  and  M.  G.  there  is  a  provincial  pronunciation  of  13  which  sounds  very  much 
like  6.    It  is  caused  by  imperfect  rounding  and  is  by  no  means  to  be  imitated. 

371.  1.  e  (mid-front  narrow)  is  easily  produced.  But  guard 
against  diphthongizing  and  widening  it  as  in  Eng.  may,  paid, 
pate.  Ex. :  33eet,  m\!},  3:^ee,  3fte^.  Pure  Fr.  and  G.  narrow  6 
sounds  as  if  it  were  cut  off  short,  and  so  it  really  is  compared 
with  Eng.  ei  in  say.     Signs  are  t^,  ec.     Always  long. 


372]  PHOiq^OLOGY — THE  VOWELS.  165 

2.  e  (mid-front  wide)  is  the  common  short  e  in  Eng.  and  G. 
Ex.:  ^enfc^,  n?enn,  3ett(cl), 

e  (€i)  is  slightly  lowered  toward  the  Eng,  vowels  of  man,  mare  ;  for 
instance,  ^afe,  5t^re,  ware.  Complete  lowering  to  the  Eng.  vowel  is  pro- 
vincial.   Signs,  e,  <x,  <x^ :  iuenben,  ^anbe,  SJici^r.    Distinguisli  therefore  : 

3.  eh  (mid-mixed-narrow)  is  unaccented  e  and  distinct  from 
"  long  "  and  "  short "  e.  It  is  more  closely  related  to  the  Eng. 
"  neutral "  vowels  of  "  cut "  and  "  cur  "  than  to  any  German 
vowel.    Ex. :  trage,  glauBe,  ©etranl,  gemettet. 

4.  a  (mid-back- wide).  This  has  various  sounds.  In  the 
city  of  Hanover  a  is  almost  fully  lowered  to  low-back.  It 
sounds  affected.  The  average  G.  a  is  almost  identical  with 
the  a  of  Eng.  father,  only  the  latter,  as  I  have  frequently  heard 
it,  has  the  sHghtest  trace  of  rounding. 

The  Austrian  long  a  has  a  very  "  deep  "  hollow  sound.  It  is  distinctly 
rounded  and  lowered,  and  is  either  low-mixed  or  low-front-wide-round. 
Signs,  a,  (ka,  a|:  Sage,  ©aal,  2Bo^I. 

Diphthongs. 

372.  There  are  three  of  these,  in  which  both  elements  are 
short  and  by  no  means  the  same  throughout  Germany. 

1.  The  first  is  represented  by  ei  and  at  in  the  alphabet. 
The  value  of  the  signs  is  the  same  in  N.  G.  and  is  de'.  Its  first 
element  is  not  fully  retracted  and  is  exactly  identical  with  the 
first  element  of  Eng.  "long"  i.  In  S.  G.  the  second  element 
is  clearly  raised  and  even  narrowed  T,  and  is  better  repre- 
sented by  CO.,  The  first  element  of  S.  G.  cX  is  clearly  mid-back. 
(See  Sweet's  Hdbk.,  p.  133.) 

2.  The  second  diphthong,  spelt  au,  is  composed  of  a  and  o 
(short  wide  o)  =  ao,  certainly  in  S.  G.  In  N.  G.  the  second 
element  is,  in  my  opinion,  mid-mixed  narrow-round,  i.e.,  the 
e  of  ®abe  rounded. 


166  PHONOLOGY — THE   COi^SOKANTS.  [373- 

3.  The  third  diphthong,  spelt  eu,  du,  rarely  oi,  is  oe'  {e'  =  e 
raised  towards  i)  in  N.  G.  and  oi  in  S.  G.,  e.  g.,  ^reute,  ©eldute. 
The  former  is  classical.  Any  approach  of  eu  towards  ei  is  pro- 
vincial and  not  elegant. 

373.  General  Remarks  on  the  Vowels.  There  are  thirteen 
vowels,  counting  either  N.  G.  or  S.  G.  b  and  not  counting  d 
lowered  mid-front.  There  are  no  "  low  "  vowels  in  G.  at  all 
as  in  Eng.  naught,  not,  snare,  err,  bag.  All  Eng.  long  vowels 
tend  toward  diphthongization,  as  in  say,  so,  saw.  The  German 
vowels  are  pure  single  sounds  and  seem  to  an  Eng.  ear  cut  off 
short,  (See,  fo»  Er.  and  G.  vowels  are  alike  in  this  respect. 
They  are  strictly  narrow.  While  German  has  no  low-back- 
round  vowels  (saw,  sot),  the  front-rounding  is  very  emphatic, 
and  the  back-vowels  are  very  fully  back,  yielding  a  full 
sonorous  tone.     See  Sweet,  p.  132. 

The  Consonants. 
Open  Consonants. 

374.  1.  H  (throat-open-surd)  is  the  same  in  Eng.  and  G. 
It  has  always  the  articulation  of  the  following  vowel,  and 
might  be  called  therefore  a  surd  vowel.     Ex. :  ^at,  iput,  ^ier, 

Sign :  1^.    A  ^  not  initial  is  always  silent,  e.  g.,  ge^cn,  ge^t,  t^un,  ^af^e'ber. 

2.  R  (throat-open-sonant)  is  strongly  "  guttural,"  and  the 
provincial  N.  G.  pronunciation  of  r,  r^,  e.  g.,  in  9tegen,  9?eger, 
33dr,  Surc^e. 

For  the  regular,  classical  r  (divided)  see  377. 

375.  1.  kh  (back-open-surd)  is  the  surd  guttural  spirant 
after  back  vowels,  viz.,  a,  a,  u,  u,  o,  6. 

Sign :  d^.  Ex.:  Soc^,  9)?a(|t,  wac^cn,  Suc^,  35au(|.  This  is  the  Sc.  ch,  as 
in  loch.  After  <x,  finally  and  before  a  consonant,  it  is  more  easily  acquired 
than  after  u  and  before  a  front  vowel.  In  S.  G.  dialect  this  is  the  only 
c^ -sound,  the  front  c^  being  unknown  there. 


376] 


PHONOLOGY— THE   CONSOi;rAl^TS. 


167 


«rt    no  ^^ 

p  2   II 
•»  5  ^ 

no    P    <! 
rS    S.  2. 

5i  00    O 

ill 

3  2 

p    pi 

a?  §- 


a- 
p  s- 


o  g,co 
•^  Oi  pj 

B*  S"  M 

en    M    M 


a 

O    rti 
t3    p 


P      HJ 


WB    . 


-a  8 

III' 

P     OJ     p 

»  o  "^ 
p   Sj»d 

•o  ^  o 

aa  p  2 
g    S    ^ 

•     a   n 
o 

cr       a 

^  i  I 

CD     P   - 

<b   p 
Pi  i:^ 

8=  5-  - 

^  S-  g. 
5^  » 
pas? 

->    O     <B 

«  s  § 


9B^ 

Z^  § 
tpr-"  p 
©:;£?. 

S-.^2 

- -a 

B   S   a, 

g^""  i 

Oi  5s  P 
«    g    ^ 

o  B  a 

rt-  pj  Si 
Z'<  <^ 

o  a  ^ 

^  §^0 


P  O     «>     13-    «> 

^  g    3    ^    B 

§  ^.  S.  o  § 

f^E a(^  gg 

P  CD    ,_^   fj    P 

o  !§'«'< 

~;  (C    "■"    p    _. 

^  1=1    U    B    o 

re  rf   g    Pi 

Pi  E-  2       2- 

<0  ■"  r— ^  „    -.. 

on  k»j  ti    0*^    & 

O  W^    O    ^ 

p  tr^  d,  1-15  (B 


t    ^'    CO    p  TJ    i:j 


2.«^  2.  *=g* 


3- §2 


i§ 


gi  ^  a^  i*  J^ 

*■  S  ^  a.  a 

g  ^.  s^  a  ^ 

02,  pj  g-  g-  «• 

s  o  o  P 

I  ^  a  o  I 

s  5  -li'^  P 


g! 

Shut 

(Mutes,  Ex- 
plosivse),. 

O 

pi 

If 

Surd. 

? 

•pl^ 

Sonant. 

^g 

Surd. 

a 

1  " 

1^ 

Sonant. 

1                 1              1       S  B=  1    Surd- 

i 

Sonant. 

If      -                  1 

Surd. 

1 

* 

1    « 

p^«- 

Sonant. 

5 

Surd. 

1 

u 

Sonant. 

|Q    IB 

Surd. 

1 

^ 
P 

pi 

^    1  OS- 

Sonant. 

l» 

Surd. 

1 
t 

ills 

Sonant. 

1  «  teip      1              i                 1    Surd.  ' 

1 

P 

Pfg 

Sonant. 

l-s 

Surd. 

I 

l'« 

Sonant. 

f  H,      Surd. 

c/-            1 

1 

1 

Sonant. 

168  PHONOLOGY — THE   CONSONANTS.  [377- 

2.  jh  (front-open-surd)  is  sometimes  called  the  "  palatal- 
guttural."  It  stands  after  the  front  (palatal)  vowels  (i.  e.,  after 
all  vowels  except  a,  o,  u),  including  the  diphthongs,  ax  ei,  eu  an, 
and  always  in  the  suffix  -d^en.   Ex.:  3<i),  ^U(^,  S3u(^er,  mbd^te,  feic^t. 

3.  The  sonants  corresponding  to  kh  smd  jh  are  gh  andj ; 
gh  stands  after  back  vowels,  j  after  front  vowels  and  initially. 
Ex. :  S3oge,  3^9^ ;  3^^^^^  SSiege,  liigen,  je,  jagen,  bbge.  But  gh  for 
g  (back-shut-sonant)  in  this  position,  though  very  common,  is 
not  classical. 

4.  In  the  alphabet  these  four  sovinds  are  represented  as  follows  : 

kh  by  c^  after  back  vowels,  as  above ;  by  final  g  in  N.  Gt.  after  back 
vowels,  not  counting  consonant  suffixes,  e.  g.,  Xa^,  SviQr  ^oq,%  tociQt,  Sagb. 
See  ^^,  383. 

jh  by  c^  after  front  vowels  and  consonants  ;  always  in  -(^en  no  matter 
what  precede.  Ex. :  Ctc^t,  Surc^e,  ©torc^,  SKabc^en,  9)?amad)en,  kuc^ten,  eud^, 
SWoIc^,  9)?il(^.  See  M,  383.  Also  by  g  final  or  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  in 
N.  Q.  after  front  vowels  and  consonants,  not  counting  consonant  sufiixes. 
(£ffig,  juotlig,  liigjl,  Uegt,  fegnen^  legfl.  Also  by  initial  c^  in  foreign  words 
before  front  vowels,  e.g.,  S^emi'e,  d^t'xnh,  diiixu'xQ.  See  also  383.  Do 
not  confound  this  sound  with  jET  +  j  (  =  y)  in  Eng.  huge,  hue. 

gh  by  medial  g  after  back  vowels,  e.  g.,  Sage,  33ogen.     See  sub  3. 

j  by  medial  g  after  front  vowels,  liegen,  Beuge,  gut^ger.  But  this  sound 
of  g  is  provincial  even  in  N.  G.  and  the  "hard"  one  (=^  shut,  stop)  is 
preferable. 

Regularly  by  j  initial.  In  N.  G.  a  strong  friction  (buzz)  is  heard  as  in 
Eng.  ye,  yew.  Ex.:  Sciger,  jitttg.  S.  G.  j  is  a  mere  i,  je  =  ie,  jung  =  iung. 
The  latter  is,  no  doubt,  the  better  pronunciation.  I  have  heard  even  a 
regular  Eng.  j  (=  dzh)  in  Bremen, 

5.  Sweet,  I  believe,  was  the  first  to  notice  a  slight  labial  element  after 
&)  when  preceded  by  u  and  au,  indicated  by  w.  Hence  auc^  =  aokhic. 
See  378. 

377.  r  (point-open-sonant)  is  the  classical  r  of  M.  and 
S.  G-.     Eng.  r  is  rather  "blade"  (dorsal)  than  "point." 

Popularly  speaking,  Eng.  r  is  "  rolled,"  G.  r  is  trilled.  The  effect 
upon  the  ear  is  very  different  in  the  two  r's,  though  their  articulation  is 
not  so  dissimilar.     See  Sweet,  §  109  and  p.  134. 


379]  PHONOLOGY — THE  CONSONANTS.  169 

378.  s,  z,  sh,  zh  (blade  and  blade-point)  form  a  group  of 
"  sibilants "  closely  related  to  each  other  and  to  Eng.  th,  dh 
(point-teeth).  They  are  very  much  aUke  in  Eng.  and  G.,  and 
no  description  is  needed  to  acquire  the  German.  (For  the 
different  varieties  see  Sievers'  Phonetik,  §  15,  2,  and  Sweet's 
Hdbk.,  p.  39.)  The  N.  G.  sounds  are  more  forward  than  the 
S.  G.  and  Eng.  Eng.  th  is  farthest  forward  (point-teeth),  then 
s,  and  then  sh,  on  the  palate.  In  th  the  current  of  air  passes 
over  the  "  point "  (tip  of  the  tongue),  in  s  over  the  "  blade  " 
which  is  back  of  the  point,  and  in  sh  over  blade  and  point, 
presenting  more  tongue-surface.  In  the  G.  sounds  a  slight 
labialization  is  noticeable,  marked  by  Sweet  shw.  It  consists 
in  a  slight  contraction  of  the  mouth  comers. 

1.  s  (blade-surd)  is  represented  by  various  letters  of  the 
alphabet  (except  in  N.  G.),  viz.,  by  f,  ^,  f ,  ff,  Ex. :  foil,  ipau^, 
gtu§,  Baffer. 

2.  z  (blade-sonant)  by  medial  and  initial  f,  peculiar  to  N.  G., 
as  in  tefen,  rafen.  Initial  f  begins  surd,  marked  by  Sweet  s,^,  as 
in  Sj^ol,  but  ends  sonant.  The  standard  is  hardly  fixed  in 
favor  of  s  or  z.     See  391,  4. 

3.  sh  (blade-point-surd)  by  \6^  and  f  in  the  initial  ft,  fp  of 
S.  and  M.  G.,  as  in  ®d)lange,  ©d^infen,  njafd)en,  ©tat)t,  ©prac^e. 
The  first  word  would  be  =  shwlaqe.  By  ^  in  foreign  words, 
S^ampa'per,  S^ifa'ne.     See  375,  4.     On  (I,  fp  also  389,  4. 

4.  zh  (blade-point-sonant)  occurs  only  in  foreign  words; 
by  g  in  Sparge,  ®age,  ^age,  Soge,  ©en^barm*  =  i  in  SournaU  In 
jotttal  i  =  j  and  frequently  J  in  Sournal  =  dzh,  Eng.  j.  Com- 
pare Eng.  azure,  crosier,  glacier. 

379.  bh  (lip-sonant)  is  the  S.  and  M.  G.  to,  pronounced 
with  the  lips  only.  Blow  to  cool  which  would  be  surd  bh  and 
then  intonate  the  breath  (Sweet,  p.  41).  Do  not  confound 
with  Eng.  w,  in  which  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  raised  and 


170  PHONOLOGY — THE  CONSONAKTS.  [380- 

the  cheeks  are  narrowed.     S.  G.  to  is  less  consonantal  than 
Eng.  w. 

380.  f  (Hp-teeth-surd),  v  (Hp-teeth-sonant).  The  above 
sounds  are  "  labio-labial."  These  are  labio-dental.  The  pas- 
sage is  formed  by  the  lower  Up  and  upper  teeth. 

1.  f  is  represented  by  f,  »,  as  in  ipafer,  faul,  ©cla^e,  ^rettel, 
0lero,  ^affto,  Se^foje;  by  ^  ^  foreign  words  :  ^^Uologit.  For 
t)f  see  389,  1. 

2.  V  is  represented  by  m  in  N.  G.,  like  Eng.  and  Fr.  v  but 
less  energetically  buzzed.  Ex. :  2Bagen,  Some,  ©dswefter.  After 
f(^,  however,  tt)  is  often  made  labio-labial  in  N.  G. ,  as  well  as 
in  M.  and  S.  G.  The  pronunciation  of  to  as  bh  or  v  between 
vowels  is  hardly  classical,  for  instance,  gre^cl  =  fi-evel  or 
frebhel.  By  initial  i)  in  foreign  words,  as  in  33a!a'n3,  3Safe, 
SSe^i'fel,  ner^b'0. 

381.  German  1/  t,  h,  n  differ  somewliat  from  the  Eng.  The  place  ot 
contact  (on  the  palate)  in  the  G.  sounds  is  much  more  forward  than  in 
the  Eng.  and  the  "  point "  of  the  tongue  is  used  in  the  former  while  the 
"blade"  is  used  in  the  latter.  Eng.  "well"  is  the  shibboleth  of  the 
German  speaking  Eng.,  and  G.  ,,tODf)l"  that  of  the  Englishman  speaking 
German.  The  difference  should  be  thoroughly  appreciated  by  all  who 
wish  to  speak  "  pure  "  German. 

1.  1  (point-divided)  is  represented  by  \,  as  in  2i(^t,  Sail,  ivo^l, 
gaiter. 

German  E  is  peculiarly  hard.  Practise  upon  SBeUc,  SBalle,  ^attc,  SBoIIc. 
See  376. 

Shut  Consonants  or  Stops. 

382.  Next  comes  a  group  of  sounds  in  which  there  is  a 
complete  closure  of  the  mouth-channel.  When  the  closure 
is  opened  an  explosion  takes  place,  hence  their  name  "  explo- 
sivw.''  "  Stops  '*  is  a  less  pedantic  name.  When  the  closure 
is  far  back,  formed  by  the  root  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft 
palate,  we  get  the  back-stops  k,  g,  called  also  not  so  well  "  gut- 


384]  PHOKOLOGY— THE   CONSO^STANTS.  171 

tural "  and  ^'palatal"  When  the  closure  is  forward,  formed 
by  the  point  of  the  tongue  and  the  teeth,  gums,  or  palate,  as 
the  case  may  be,  we  have  the  point-stops  t,  d,  called  also 
"dental"  or  ^^ lingual"  or  ''alveolar."  If  the  closure  is  made 
by  the  Hps,  we  have  the  lip-stops  or  "labials."  The  great 
difference  between  G.  and  Eng.  stops,  particularly  the  surd 
ones,  lies  in  the  more  energetic  closure  and  explosion  of  the 
G.,  amounting  almost  to  an  H  (aspiration). 

383.  1.  k  (back-shut-surd)  is  represented  by  f,  as  in  ^a^e, 
buf,  ^ragen;  by  (^i  a,  before  ^  (in  the  same  stem);  6,  in  foreign 
words  before  back  vowels.  Ex.:  a.  %Vi&j^,  fed)^,  33ud)^baum, 
tvacbfen  ;  but  wac^fam,  b.  (E^ara'cter,  (E^ao^,  S^otera*  But  see 
375,  4;  378,  3.  Also  by  cf,  dt,  with  prolonged  closure:  ^udt, 
^nxMktjXtn.  By  final  g  in  S.  G.  and  according  to  the  standard 
pronunciation.     See  375,  4;  385,  3;  20. 

This  01  is  not  strongly  exploded,  has  no  aspiration,  and  is  called  with 
final  B  and  b  by  German  phonetists  "tonlose  media,"  by  the  people 
"  hard  "  h,  b.  To  English  speakers  it  seems  absurd  to  speak  of  a  "  surd  " 
or  "  hard  "  h.  We  would  call  these  sounds  p,  t,  k  ;  i.  e.  surd  stops,  unas- 
pirated,  slightly  exploded. 

a.  Also  by  final  g  preceded  by  n,  but  only  in  N.  G.,  as  in  lang,  iuitg. 
See  386, 1. 

2.  g  (back-shut  sonant)  is  represented  by  g  initial  and  when 
doubled,  as  in  ge^en,  fagett,  drgerit,  Baggerit,  Sgge.     See  375,  4. 

384.  1.  t  (point-shut-surd)  is  represented  by  t,  tt,  as  in 
SBette,  ^tntc,  Zank,  ^nt ;  by  t^,  as  in  Zhat,  Zlxd,  formerly  very 
common  finally,  as  in  ^IJlut^,  §eirat|,  §eimat|,  which  are  now 
spelt  without  ^,  Also  by  b  final,  as  in  2;ob,  ^eft^eit),  ftnb,  ^(ei^ 
^dnt):;(^en.  See  385,  3.  By  tt  only  in  ©tabt  and  its  deriva- 
tives, but  formerly  more  frequent,  as  in  tobt,  S3rol)t,  gefd)e{bt, 
(Srntte,  which  are  now  spelt  tot,  33rot,  etc. 

2.  d  (point-shut-sonant)  is  represented  by  t»  initial  and 
medial,  as  in  banlen,  Uv,  Soten,  ^letter,  Sibber. 


172  PHONOLOGY — THE  CONSONANTS.  [385- 

385.  1.  p  (lip-shut-surd)  is  represented  by  )j,  p^  (see  382, 
but  Eng.  p  before  vowels  is  often  as  strongly  aspirated,  e.  g., 
pound,  par,  pat.  Ex. :  ^uber,  ^ra(^t,  ^aupt,  ^appe,  Sappen. 
Also  by  B  final,  as  in  XieB,  gaB,  lieb,  ^oh,  ^oBft,  m^t,  IieB;?t,  See 
sub  3. 

2.  b  (lip-shut-sonant)  is  represented  by  medial  and  initial  K 
For  final  B  see  sub  3.    Ex.:  8ofe,  8uBe,  Sbk,  !ra66eln» 

3.  Final  b^  'b  are  therefore  pronounced  t,  p  all  over  Germany,  and  g  as 
k  according  to  the  standard  pronunciation,  but  not  in  N.  G.  See  383, 1. 
For  0  after  n  see  383,  1,  a. 

4.  Before  b,  I,  q,  pronounced  as  surd  stops,  the  liquids  I,  n,  m  are  short, 
and  not  long  as  in  English.  Pronounce  twilb  therefore  nearly  with  the  U 
of  Eng,  wilt,  uttb  with  the  nd  of  hunt,  not  of  hound,  wild. 

Nasals. 

386.  The  nasals  are  also  "  shut "  consonants,  but  they  are 
not  stops  (with  explosion).  The  air  passes  through  the  nose, 
and  we  distinguish  them  according  to  the  place  of  contact. 

q  is  the  "  back-nasal-sonant "  common  to  Eng.  and  G.,  as 
in  Eng.  bring,  G.  fringe,  ftnge, 

1.  q  is  represented  by  n  before  !,  before  g  in  N.  G.,  and  by 
medial  ng*  Ex. :  2:ranf,  SBinf,  bange,  lange,  ^^inger.  Final  iig  is 
q  according  to  the  standard,  e.  g.,  ©efang,  ^ing*  For  N.  G. 
final  ng  see  383,  1.  Also  by  n  of  en,  in,  on,  an,  ent  final  in  for- 
eign words,  as  in  ^aup^in,  balancieren,  5li)ancement,  (£^cat>ron, 
33onbon» 

This  is  an  unsuccessful  attempt  of  Germans  at  pronouncing  the 
French  nasal  vowels,  which  are  not  at  all  identical  with  q  ;  q  does  not 
exist  in  French.  Though  incorrect,  this  sound  is  given  by  the  educated 
classes  and  by  the  stage. 

387.  n  is  the  "  point-nasal"  (half-dental).  For  Eng.  and 
G.  n,  see  381.  n  is  represented  by  n,  nn  as  generally  written, 
except  where  it  becomes  either  guttural  or  labial  by  the  prox- 
imity of  guttural  and  labial  consonants.     (See  386.)     Ex.: 


389]  PHOl^OLOGY — ^THE  CONSONANTS.  173 

fenten,  ^anb,  ©pinne,  Siittbel,  matK^e,  Zm6^^,  mo^nen,  2;^ron,  wantten 
=:  vantn. 

388.  m,  the  lip-nasal,  is  identical  in  Eng.  and  G.  It  is 
represented  by  m,  mm:  ?O^Uttt),  @timme,  tvarm;  also  by  en  after 
b  and  |J,  as  in  )jumpen  =pumpm,  Zvtp^m  =  trepm. 

1.  In  untaught  pronunciation  not  influenced  by  tlie  letter,  n  is  also 
pronounced  as  m  before  f,  as  in  fanft,  fitnf,  ^anf,  3u!unft,  3unft.  Over- 
precise  speakers  pronounce  as  two  full  syllables  words  like  Mei^'^ettf  Cum- 
\)m,  ftn^ben,  ftn^geitf  etc.,  but  persons  speaking  naturally  pronounce  as 
stated  above. 

Compound  Consonants. 

389.  These  are  composed  of  single  sounds  already  de- 
scribed, but  some  of  them  seem  to  call  for  special  mention. 
Their  elements  are  closely  joined  together  without  any  glide. 

1.  pf  is  composed  of  p  and  f,  and  is  always  represented  by 
pf,  as  in  ^firftd),  ^amp\,  ^arpfen,  8umpf.  But  this  pf  is  not  pro- 
nounced except  by  a  special  effort.  The  current  and  "  natu- 
ral "  pf  is  composed  of  a  lip-teeth-stop  and  f.  (This  was  first 
noticed  by  Sievers  and  Sweet.)  The  first  element  being  formed 
by  lower  Hp  and  teeth  instead  of  by  lower  and  upper  lips,  as  in 
a  real  lip-stop.  Final  pf  is  in  N.  G.  commonly  made  into  f, 
but  it  is  not  to  be  imitated. 

2.  ks  is  composed  of  the  surd  back-shut  and  the  surd 
blade-open,  as  in  Eng.  Kepresented  by  r,  as  in  %t,  Ztxt,  Sflin, 
2lle):attt>er ;  also  by  (^^  and  d^f,  if  of  the  same  stem,  as  in  2Bad)^, 
D(^fen.    See  383,  1. 

3.  ts  is  composed  of  the  surd  t  (point-shut)  and  s  the  surd 
blade-open.  Bepresented  by  a,  as  in  3^no^^,  3tel,  S3eisen,  SSarje ; 
by  tj,  as  in  ©prii^en,  fd^mi^en,  ^a^e ;  by  c  in  foreign  words  before 
front  vowels,  as  in  ^tcce'nt,  ^m'l,  9tccenfe'nt,  Sbliba't,  etc.;  by  t  in 
foreign  words  before  i,  as  in  ^atie'nt,  5^atio'n,  etc. 


174  PHONOLOGY — THE   CONSONANTS.  [390- 

4.  G.  ts  differs  from  Eng.  ts  in  cats,  liats  in  this  respect .  in  G  ts  s  is 
long,  in  Eng.  ts  t  is  long.  In  ft  =  sht  and  \p  =  shp  (see  378.  3)  the  first 
element  is  also  short.  In  "natural"  pronunciation  final  j  in  N  G  is 
made  into  ^  after  n,  rarely  after  r  and  I  ;  so  that  ganj  becomes  ®an^, 
(S(|tt)atij  >  <Sc^»an^.    But  this  is  not  classical. 

5.  Though  there  are  doubled  letters,  both  vowels  and  consonants, 
there  are  no  doubled  sounds.  Double  vowels  denote  one  long  vowel,  as 
in  <Bcia,\,  (Staat,  Moo^,  and  double  consonants  are  long  energetic  conso- 
nants, as  in  Sette,  f)(i\ftn,  Zxmt,  jerren,  2:reffer,  ©onne,  aHe.  But  the  conso- 
nants are  not  always  long  and  short  in  G.  in  the  same  places  where  they 
are  so  in  Eng.  See,  for  instance,  385,  4.  Final  consonants  are  short  in 
German.  Compare  ^am\,  Xoo^,  ^ut  with  Eng.  man,  well,  hut  The 
Eng.  sonant  stops  d,  g,  b  are  very  long  and  their  sonancy  is  very  em- 
phatic. This  is  not  so  in  German.  Compare  dhbt  —  ebb,  ©gge  —  dagger, 
etc. 

ON  A  STANDARD    OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

390.  While  Germans  have  a  common  literary  language, 
they  have  not  a  common  spoken  language.  German  cannot 
boast  of  such  authorities  in  pronunciation  as  French  has  in 
Paris,  in  the  French  Academy  and  in  the  Theatre  Fran9ais. 
Provincialism,  so  strong  in  German  politics  and  other  institu- 
tions, is  particularly  strong  in  pronunciation.  All  sections  of 
the  country  readily  acknowledge  the  "  Schriftsprache  "  as  the 
common  language  of  the  country,  but  in  pronouncing  the 
same  they  claim  the  utmost  liberty. 

1.  One  can  hear  professors  of  the  German  language  at  the  universities 
speaking  in  the  purest  dialect  pronunciation ;  so  one  can,  preachers  in 
the  churches  and  representatives  in  the  state-legislatures  and  in  the 

2.  The  great  authors  of  the  classical  period,  Lessing,  Goethe,  Schiller, 
Klopstock,  etc. ,  pronounced  the  literary  language  with  strong  dialect 
coloring.  One  of  Lessing's  favorite  phrases  was :  „®5  fommt  boc^  nid)td 
bakl  l)erait^r"  which  he  is  said  to  have  pronounced  ,/^  fommt  boc^  nifd^ta})et 
?rau^.''  Gofithe  was  called  "  Gete"  by  them.  Compare  Goethe's  defence 
of  dialect  in  ,Mu^  m  e  i  n  e  m  S  e  b  e  n"  (Hart's  Goethe's  Prose,  p.  19-20). 


391]  PHOKOLOGY — STAJSTDARD   OF   PROKUNCIATIOIT.          175 

3.  To  dialect  pronunciation  are  mostly  due  such  bad  rhymes  as  :  Seute  : 
Seite;  fc^on  :  gel^n;  fru^  :  nie;  $ij^':  ©ee;  feme  :  ©eprue;  which  occur  in 
their  poems.  Platen,  Riickert,  and  Bodenstedt  carefully  avoid  these 
rhymes.  In  families  of  culture  in  Cologne  you  hear  dit  and  dat  for  bie^ 
and  basS.  In  Bremen  are  still  families  who  take  pride  in  having  the 
children  learn  the  L.  G.  dialect  first. 

4.  In  Hanover,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  surrounding  districts  of  the 
province,  the  pronunciation  is  generally  considered  classical,  and  yet 
Hanoverian  has  three  strong  provincialisms  :  1,  fl,  fp,  which  most  Ger- 
mans pronounce  f(^t,  fc^jj  ;  2,  they  pronounce  the  sonant  stop  g  as  the 
spirant,  while  it  should  be  pronounced  as  a  surd  stop  just  what  all  Ger- 
mans make  of  b  and  b;  3,  in  the  city  itself  a  is  made  almost  into  long  a. 

391.  The  only  institution  that  claims  to  have  a  standard 
and  tries  to  come  up  to  it  is  the  stage.  The  best  theatres  of 
Germany  and  the  better  actors,  followed  by  a  very  small  num- 
ber of  the  cultured,  strive  after  a  dialect-free  pronunciation. 
The  standard  set  up  by  them  decides  the  disputed  points  as 
follows  : 

1.  Initial  fl,  fp  are  to  be  pronounced  \6^i,  f(^|j.     See  24. 

2.  Final  g  is  surd  except  after  ii  (386,  1),  but  see  the  Pre- 
face :  33erg  here,  2Beg  wee,  liegt  lict. 

3.  Pronounce  r  trilled,  not  uvular  or  guttural,  as  in  North 
Germany  and  in  the  larger  cities. 

4.  North  and  Middle  Germans  pronounce  initial  f  and  f  be- 
tween vowels  as  sonants  ;  the  standard  is  not  quite  settled, 
but  will  probably  come  to  sonant  [. 

5.  The  rounded  vowel  should  be  fully  rounded.  The  ex- 
treme N.  G.  pronounces  u,  o,  ii  (short)  in  ^agetutte,  !omm\ 
^iitte  too  much  like  Eng.  but,  come,  hut.  The  extreme  S.  G. 
likes  to  unround  ii  >  i,  b  >  e* 

6.  Xag,  3^9,  2Seg  have  long  vowels,  =  tac,  zuc,  wee.  See 
sub  2;  also  488,  2,6. 

7.  The  lip-teeth  m  and  not  the  S.  G.  labio-labial  bh  has  the 
preference. 


176  PHOKOLOGY — ABLAUT.  [392- 

392.  1.  But  it  is  possible  to  have  a  dialect-free  pronunciation  and 
yet  have  dialect-accent, e.e.,  ** intonation,"  "modulation  of  voice."  Very 
pronounced  are,  e.  g. ,  the  "  accents  "  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  Bavaria  (Miinchen), 
Saxony,  which  can  be  distinguished  without  much  diflBculty  even  in  a 
good  pronunciation.  The  stage  favors  the  North  German  "  accent,"  par- 
ticularly the  Hanoverian,  and  this  is  at  bottom  what  is  meant  by  saying 
the  Hanoverian  is  the  best  pronunciation. 

2.  There  is  another  reason,  however,  why  the  N.  G.  pronunciation  is 
"  purer,"  as  it  is  generally  called,  than  S.  G.  The  Low  German  dialects 
are  farther  removed  from  the  classical  language  than  the  High  German. 
The  contrast  is  felt  more  in  North  Germany  than  in  South  Germany, 
The  school  and  the  educated  make  a  stronger  effort  to  acquire  the  stan- 
dard pronunciation  as  far  as  there  is  any.  The  N.  G.  is  more  influenced 
by,  and  has  a  higher  respect  for,  the  written  language.  He  pronounces 
according  to  the  letter  before  him.  Compare,  for  instance,  B  and  p, 
which  the  Saxon  calls  a  "  soft  'h  "  and  a  ''hard  6." 

3.  Another  reason  for  the  purity  of  N.  G.  lies  also  in  the  political  and 
intellectual  predominance  of  the  Northern  half  of  Germany  for  nearly 
two  hundred  years.  The  speakers  of  S.  G.  dialects  are  divided  between 
Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Austria.  The  modern  theatre  also  developed 
earlier  in  N.  Germany  than  in  S.  Germany. 

4.  The  Swiss  too  can  speak  dialect- free  German  when  conversing 
with  strangers,  of  whom  they  of  course  see  a  great  many.  They  make 
then  a  special  effort  to  drop  their  dialect,  which  is  nearly  as  far  removed 
from  the  written  language  as  is  a  Low  German  dialect. 

5.  One  thing  is  surprising,  viz.,  that  the  excellent  G.  school-system 
has  not  more  power  to  spread  a  common  spoken  language.  It  is  true, 
the  school  does  modify  the  dialect,  but  when  the  child  has  left  school,  its 
language  relapses,  as  a  rule,  into  pure  dialect. 


SOME    PHONETIC    LAWS,    LIKE    ABLAUT,    UMLAUT, 
GRIMM'S  AND  VERNER'S  LAWS,  ETC. 

Ablaut. 

393.  Ablaut  is  the  gradation  of  vowels,  both  in  stem  and 
suffix,  under  the  influence  of  accent.  The  vowels  vary  within 
certain  series  of  related  vowels  called  ablaut-series. 


395]  PHOKOLOGY — ABLAUT.  177 

The  ablaut  of  suffix-vowels,  e.  ff.,  of  case-suffixes,  is  difficult  to  determine  even  for 
so  early  a  period  as  O.  H.  G.  or  Ags.    We  shall  speak  only  of  the  stem-vowel-ablaut. 

The  phenomenon  of  ablaut  appears  in  all  the  I.  E.  languages  and  is  characteristic 
of  the  Teutonic  languages,  only  in  so  far  as  a  very  large  system  of  verb-inflection  has 
been  developed.  On  the  Greek  ablaut,  see  Amer.  Journ.  of  Phil .  vol.  I.,  No.  3,  p. 
281 — ,  an  article  by  Bloomfield. 

394.  Osthoff  and  Brugman  have  the  credit  of  establishing  as 
many  as  four  grades  or  stages  of  ablaut,  viz.,  hochstufe^  strong 
and  weak;  tiefstufe,  strong  and  weak,  which  may  be  called  in 
Eng.  strong,  medium,  weak,  zero.  They  do  not  appear  in  every 
series.  But  the  second  has  them  all,  viz.,  ^*au"  strong;  "ew — m" 
medium;  "  u "  weak;  "  u  "  zero.  The  first  two  stand  under  the 
strong  accent;  the  third  under  the  secondary,  the  last  in  the 
unaccented  syllable. 

Why  there  should  be  a  difference  of  vowel  under  the  strong  accent  is  not  clear,  but 
the  fact  of  two  grades  is  undeniable. 

1.  For  the  I.  E  or  Parent-speech- period  three  series  have  been  recon- 
structed with  tolerable  certainty  and  there  are  traces  of  several  more. 
But  the  exact  quality  of  the  vowels  can  hardly  be  determined,  o  of  the 
first  I.  E.  series  was  probably  unrounded,  and  more  a  than  o,  see  459. 

1.  e — o,  G.  T.  e,  i — a,  appears  in  I.  to  V. 

3.  a— a,  G.  T.  a— 6,  in  VT.,  see  459,  4. 

3.  e — 6,  O.  H.  G.  a — uo,  in  G.  tat,  Slliat  —  tuon,  t^un. 

We  give  the  Germanic  series  in  Braune's  order.  (See  his  Gothic  grapomar,  followed 
also  by  Sievers  in  his  Ags.  and  Paul  in  his  M.  H.  G.  grammar.) 

395.  *  I.  Ablaut-series. 

*1  2  3  4 

strong.  medium,      weak.  zero. 

G.  T.  ai  ei  i  i 


O.  H.  G.     ai,  ei,  ^  i  1,  e 

N.H.  G.     ci(ie,  i),c  ei  i  (ie),  e,  c. 

Compare  Gr.  Tren-otfla,  neiOa,  icAt/iaf ,  neniOfiev ;  oi/oto?,  ei/oti,  Ifievai,  ifxev,     I IS  the  zero 

Stage,  because  the  first  element  of  the  diphthong,  e — o,  has  disappeared,  while  the 
second,  the  consonant  element  of  the  falling  diphthong,  has  become  a  vowel. 

*  The  figures  I.,n.,  etc.,  always  refer  to  the  ablaut-series :  the  figures  1,  2,  3, 4  refer 
to  the  ablaut  stage. 


178  PHONOLOGY — ABLAUT.  [396- 

Ex. :  1,  leren,  k^ren,  <  lai^an,  to  teach ;  lera,  2ti^n,  +  Ags.  Idr,  Eng. 
lore  ;  Seifien  +  last  (Kluge) ;  pret.  sg.  of  strong  verbs  of  CI.  I.  2  and  3, 
pres.  of  verbs  of  CI.  I.  4,  ^x%  lernen,  with  the  words  of  1,  from  the  same 
V]xa.  X  represents  the  vowel  that  is  to  appear  according  to  accent  and 
is  an  unknown  quantity  in  the  root.  1,  jeigen,  Beigeftnger;  2  and  3,  jet^en; 
4,  gejie^en,  iDerjid^ten,  all  from  a  Vdxc.  Compare  L.  dtcere.  Notice  the 
Eng.  cognates  show  in  1,  a,  o :  ladder,  wrote,  last,  lore,  loaf;  in  2  and  3 : 
i,  rise,  smite  ;  in  4,  i  :  risen,  smitten,  list. 

396.     II.  Ablaut-series. 


1 

2 

8 

4 

G.  T. 

au 

eu 

A 

u 

0.  H.  G. 

ou,  6 

iu,  60,  io 

ii 

u,6 

N.  H.  G. 

0,6 

ie,  eu 

au 

n,  0,  6. 

AU  four  grades  still  apparent  in  German,  ft  bears  the  same  relation  to  eu,  au  as  I 
to  gi,  ai.    See  above.    Compare  x^Fw,  xoF»y,  x^f^o?*  x'^^ds. 

Ex.:  From  the  V\^:  l.So^e,  flame.  2,  2id^t  <  Ueht,Uu6^ttr{,  +  light. 
4,  2n6)^  +  lynx(?).  From  a  Vklu  :  2,  Ceumunb.  3,  taut  <  hlut  +  loud  ; 
4,  Subtwig,  Sut:^er,  Gr.  kXvtoc,  L.  indiitus.  Again,  2,  fiec^  +  sick,  ©eud^c, 
and  4,  ©uc^t.  See  the  strong  verbs  of  CI.  II.  <  Vb'xd' :  1,  bot  pret.  of 
Metett*  2,  Metcn,  ®eMet.  4,  S3ote,  ®e^ot,  S3uttel  +  beadle.  Eng.  bid  repre- 
sents older  leodan  II.  and  biddan  V.  The  corresponding  Eng.  vowels  are 
very  irregular. 

397.     ni.  Ablaut-series. 

1  2  8,4 

G.  T.         a  e,  i  u  before  r,  1,  m,  n 

German    a,  e  (umlaut)  e,  i  u,  o» 

As  to  3  and  4,  see  459,  3,  a.    The  roots  all  end  in  r,  1,  m,  n  +  cons. 

Ex. :  See  the  strong  verbs  of  CI.  III.  From  the  root  of  winben,  want, 
gewunben,  +  wind :  1,  bie  2Banb,  wenben  <  *wa?idjan,  +  Eng.  wend,  gewanbt, 
wanbern  +  wander,  etc.  2,  bie  SBinbe,  SSJinbel.  <  Germanic  l^bxrg. 
1,  barg  pret.  sg.  2,  SSerg,  ©ebirge,  tergen.  3,  4,  Surg,  +  burgh,  borough, 
to  burrow.  SBUrger,  SSiirge,  borgen  +  borrow(?).  Also  +  bury.  Correspond- 
ing Eng.  vowels  in  verbs  before  nasals  are  i  in  2,  a  in  1,  u  in  4,  e.g.,  spin, 
span,  spun.  In  nouns,  etc.,  they  are  quite  irregular,  but  generally  also 
e  or  i,  a,  u,  o. 


400]  PH0:N^0L0GY — ABLAUT.  179 


398.    IV.  Abiaut- 

•series. 

G.  T.         a,  4 
0.  H.  G.     a,  d 

N.  H.  G.     a 

2 

e 

e,i 
I,  e,  ie,  i 

3,4 
U 

u,  o 

u,  it,  0,  0. 

The  roots  end  in  a  single  liquid  or  nasal,  or  these  stand  before  the  vowels.  0,  &  are 
not  yet  explained. 

Ex. :  Verbs  of  CI.  IV.,  jle^Ien,  fla^I,  geflo^kn.  1,  !Dietfla^I.  <  Vdxm. 
1,  la^m,  ja^men  +  tame.  2,  gejiemen.  3,  4,  3unft.  <  Vh's.v.  1,  bie  SSa^re, 
+  bier,  barrow(?),  ftc^  geba^ren,  bie  ©eBarbe,  -bar.  3,  geMren  +  bear,  (£imer  < 
ein-her,  Buber  <  zwiber  (see  Kluge).  3,  4,  bie  Siirbe  +  burthen,  bie  ®eburt 
+  birtli,  bie  ®cbit^r(?),  geM^rli^.  Eng.  cognates  show  generally  ea,  o, 
€.  ^.,  bear,  bore. 

399.  V.  Ablaut-series. 

1  2,  3,  4 

G.  T.  a,  a  e 

O.  H.  G.     a,  a  e,  i 

N.  H.  G.    a,  a  t,  I,  i,  ie 

Only  two  grades.    The  roots  end  in  a  single  consonant,  not  a  liquid  or  nasal. 

Ex. :  Verbs  of  CI.  V.  <  Germanic  Vgxb.  1,  gab,  ®abe.  2,  3,  4, 
geben,  gegeben,  bu  gtebft,  bie  and  bai3  ®ift.  Eng,  vowels  the  same,  +  give, 
gave,  gift. 

400.  VI.  Ablaut-series. 


1 

2,3 

4 

G.  T. 

6 

a(o?) 

a 

0.  H.  G. 

uo 

a,  e 

u 

N.  H.  G. 

ti,fl 

a,  e  (umlaut) 

W,tt 

4  Not  in  the  past  part.,  only  in  nouns.    A  difficult  series. 

Ex. :  Verbs  of  CI.  VI.  <  V^.  1,  fu^r,  fit^ren.  2,  3,  fa^ren,  bie  %oi)XX. 
4,  bie  %\xxi  +  ford.  <  Vmxl.  1,  M.  H.  G.  muol  (now  ma^Ue).  2,  3, 
ma^len,  9«e^l  +  meal,  ntalmen,  3nalter.  4,  9«it^Ie  +  mill,  SKiitter,  ?D^utt,  9Kaul^ 
tt)urf  +  mole,  by  popular  etymology  <  moUwurf  +  mould-warp. 


180  PHONOLOGY — UMLAUT.  [401- 

Umlaut. 

401.  Umlaut  is  the  modification  of  an  accented  vowel  by 
an  i  (j)  in  the  next  syllable.    See  362. 

1.  By  it  a,  o,  u  become  sounds  lying  nearer  to  i.  In  other  words,  back  and  mixed 
vowels  become  more  like  front  vowels  through  the  influence  of  front  vowels.  The 
tongue-position  of  back  and  mixed  vowels  changes  to  "front,"  while  the  rest  of  tiie 
articulation  remains  the  same.  Tliis  "fronting"  is  called  by  the  Germans  "mouil- 
lierung,"  i.e.,  palatalization.  Sievers'  theory  is  that  the  intervening  consonants  were 
first  affected  and  then  the  immediately  preceding  vowel.  Such  palatalized  consonants 
are  the  Fr.  1  and  n  still  in  ''feuUle  "  <fdium^  Espagne  <  Hispania. 

2.  To  understand  umlaut  we  must  go  back  to  a  period  in  which  i  (j) 
was  still  tolerably  intact  as  in  O.  H.  G.  But  there  was  only  one  umlaut 
marked  in  that  period,  viz.,  that  of  a  and  its  sign  was  e  just  like  the 
original  e  now  distinguished  by  "  =  e.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  umlaut  of  the 
other  vowels  appears  and  is  unfortunately  very  irregularly  represented. 
Sievers  supposes  that  the  consonants  were  already  palatalized  in  O.  H.  G. 
and  that  they  imparted  their  change  to  the  vowel  in  M.  H.  G.  But  it  is 
also  very  likely  that  the  vowels  were  already  palatalized  in  O.  H.  G., 
only  the  alphabet  was  not  suflBcient  to  show  the  change. 

Ex. :  lamp — lembir,  Sammer;  gcM  >  gaebe  >  goi^e,  pret.  sbj. ;  gast — 
gasti  >  geste,  ®aj^e;  *aU-lantjo  >  eli-lenti  >  eUende>  elenb,  unfortunate 
because  in  an  "other  country;"  se6ni  >  schoene  >  f(^on;  angil  >  ©ngel; 
bSsi  >  Uh,  etc. 

402.  The  extent  of  this  phenomenon  varies  with  the  period  and  the  dialect.  Certain 
consonants  have  prevented  umlaut.  But  we  cannot  enter  upon  a  further  discussion. 
Compare  gebulbig,  gewalttg.  By  umlaut,  then,  a  >  a,  e;  o  (=:)  >  6  (-) ;  u  >  u  (-) ;  au  > 
au,  eu,  but  this  only  seemingly  in  cases  where  au  <  fl,  since  U  passed  into  u  (iu)  and  this 
Into  eu,  au,  according  to  488,  5. 

1.  While  in  German  umlaut  is  still  a  living  factor,  it  is  dead  in  Eng.  and  has  been 
for  some  8-900  years.  Eng.  only  has  isolated  forms  with  umlaut,  e.  g.,  mouse— mice, 
cow— kine,  etc.,  that  belong  to  no  system  of  inflection  or  derivation  in  which  umlaut 
serves  as  the  expression  of  a  function  or  meaning.  We  call  the  above  examples  "  ir- 
regular "  plurals. 

2.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  "  rflckumlaut "  =  "  umlaut  reversed,"  as  the  old  gram- 
marians called  it,  e.  g.^  in  benfen,  ba^te,  9eba(i^t.    See  454,  3. 

Interchanges  of  Vowels:  e  —  i,  te;  no  Umlaut  —  Umlaut; 
tt  —  0  ;  it  —  tn* 

403.  c  —  i  (ic)»  1,  where  e  is  original,  that  is  G.  T.  and 
I.  E.  e.  e  passed  into  i  before  i  (j)  standing  in  the  unac- 
cented syllable,  a  process  exactly  analogous  to  umlaut;  e  >  i 


405]  PHONOLOGY — PHOKETIC   LAWS.     U — O.  181 

also  before  a  nasal  belonging  to  the  same  syllable,  generally 
before  nasal  +  cons.  The  physiological  reason  for  the  latter 
change  is  not  clear. 

Ex.:  The  present  of  CI.  III.,  IV.,  V.,  see  also  the  O.  H.  G.  paradigm. 
The  first  p.  sg.  nimu  may  be  due  to  analogy,  but  in  0.  H.  G.  and  Ags. 
e  >  i  also  before  u  and  it  may  therefore  be  a  phonetic  transition,  ft^en, 
Uegen,  Mtten  have  i  all  through,  see  457, 1 ,  but  ©effel  <  se^^al.  i^elb— ® eftlbe 
<gifildi.  rcc^t  —  ri(i)ten  <  ^rihtjon,  +  L.  rectus,  geber  —  ©efteber;  fern  — 
firn  <  firni.    Verbs  of  III.  CI.;  ftnben,  f(^»)immcn.    ®ekn — ®ift  <  gifti. 

2,  i  is  original,  but  passed  into  e  before  a,  e,  o  in  the  next 
syllable  or  if  the  word  ended  in  a  consonant,  i  remained 
before  i  (j)  and  before  w. 

The  cases  of  i  >  e  are  not  numerous.  It  is  a  High  German  and  Old  Saxon  peculiar- 
ity.   Eng.  has  still  i.    This  is  still  called  93ve(^ung  after  Grimm. 

Ex. :  fe(f  —  erqutcfen  +  quick,  quicken ;  lekn  +  live,  flekn  +  cleave, 
fc^lDcBen  belong  to  ablauts.  I.  with  the  zero  grade.  SJerWefen^  to  decompose, 
compare  L.  vvrus,  Skr.  msh-am.  Sekr  +  liver.  ^t<i)  +  Eng.  pitch  < 
h.pic-s.  ©teg  <  same  root  as  jleigen  I.;  SSed^fel —  +  Lat.  vic-es.  er  < 
ir,  +  Lat.  is. 

404.  Umlaut  —  no  umlaut. 

Ex. :  Verbs  of  VI.  and  VII.  CI.,  but  in  the  latter  mostly  by  analogy, 
e. g.,  far u,  f erst,  fert  —  fa^re,  fa^x^,  fci^rt.  51U  — (Sltern  <  eltiron.  Comp. 
+  elders.  Slbel  <  adal  —  ebel  <  edili.  Comp.  +  Ethel.  Very  numer- 
ous and  the  umlaut  often  more  or  less  hidden. 

405.  tt  —  0.  In  the  stem-syllable  u  is  always  the  older  and 
passed  into  o  before  a,  e,  o.  It  was  preserved  Hke  i  before 
i  (j),  w  and  a  nasal  belonging  to  the  same  syllable. 

This  process  is  also  one  of  assimilation  similar  to  umlaut,  called  "  brechung'"  by 
the  older  grammarians. 

Ex.:  See  verbs  of  CI.  II.,  III.,  IV.  in  the  past  part,  and  compare  with 
them  the  pret.  pi.  and  nouns  from  the  same  stem,  e.g.,  i^luc^t,  3u<^t,  ^tx^ 
nunft,  3unft.  ©ollte  <  scoZto  —  ©(^ulb ;  |oIb  — ^ulb  <  huldi;  ^o^  —  ^Mi, 
^  <  ykxl.  ®olb  —  ©ulben  (a  coin),  but  golben  +  golden  by  analogy  ;  SBote 
—  33uttel  <  butil.  The  transition  before  nasals  is  quite  modern  and  M.  G. 
Comp.  (Sonne  <  sunna ;  ©onimer  <  sumer  :  <So^n  <  sunu  ;  past  part,  of  III. 
Before  n  +  cons,  (not  n)  u  remains  now,  gefunbett,  S3unb,  gefunfen,  ?lnfunft. 


182  PHONOLOGY — PHOKETIC  LAWS — GRIMM'S.  [406- 

406.  it  (io)  —  m  (iu),  iu  being  levelled  away  and  ie  stand- 
ing for  both  io  and  iu,  tbis  interchange  is  not  common  now. 
Both  iu  and  io  <  G.  T.  eu.  eu  >  iu  before  i  (j)  and  w,  but 
>  eo  before  a,  e,  o;  and  later  eo  >  io  >  ie,  ie*  The  process 
is  e  >  i  and  u  >  o  in  the  same  diphthong. 

Ex. :  Ablauts,  and  CI.  II.,  see  124,  Remark.  SS5a^  ba  freu(^t  wnb  fleugt 
(Sch.).     Meten  —  SSeute (?>  SBeutel  (?). 

Grimm's  Law  or  the  "shifting  of  mutes"  Saut^erf^teButtg* 

407.  It  concerns  the  so-called  "mutes,"  b,  p,  f;  d,  t,  th;  g, 
k,  ch,  media,  tenuis,  aspirata.  This  law  was  discovered  by 
Rask,  but  first  fully  stated  by  Jacob  Grimm.  It  includes  two 
great  shiftings,  the  first  prehistoric,  that  is,  General  Teutonic 
or  Germanic;  the  second,  historical  or  German.  The  first  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  whole  group  and  shared  to  very  nearly  the 
same  extent  by  every  member  of  the  group;  the  second  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  German  dialects  proper,  is  partial  both  as 
to  the  number  of  sounds  and  of  dialects  affected.  We  very 
briefly  represent  the  first  shiftiug.  See  the  author's  article 
in  the  Amer.  Jour,  of  Phil.,  vol.  I.,  for  a  fuller  account.  Let 
y  represent  the  sonant  stops,  z  the  surd  ones  and  x  the  so- 
called  "  aspirate,"  which  represents  various  sounds.  The  fol- 
lowing formulas  will  be  of  use.  G.  is  added  now  merely  for 
illustration. 


Parent-speech,  I.  E. 

Q.T. 

G. 

L 

X                 > 

y 

> 

Z 

n. 

J                 > 

z 

> 

X 

m. 

z                > 

X 

> 

y 

Notice  I.  E.  is  the  oldest  stage  of  the  language  reconstructed  from  the  various  I.  E. 
dialects.  You  can  substitute  for  I.  E.  any  language  but  the  Teutonic,  provided  you 
make  allowance  for  any  changes  in  that  particular  language,  e.  g.,  d'  has  become  f  or  d 
in  Latin.  By  General  Teutonic  or  Germanic  is  meant  that  stage  which  is  reconstructed 
from  all  the  Teutonic  dialects.  By  G.  we  mean  the  written  language  of  Germany ;  H.  G. 
means  South  and  Middle  as  opposed  to  Low  German. 


410}  PHOKOLOGT — PHONETIC   LAWS— GRIMM'S.  183 

Substitute  in  each  formula  the  labials,  dentals,  etc. 

408.  Form.  I.  1.  x  =  d'.  I.  E.  d'  =  d  +  sonant  aspiration 
(Ellis),  "  sonant  affricate,"  this  d'  through  G.  T.  dh  (sonant 
spirant)  >  d  >  H.  G.  t,  but  dh  remains  in  Go.  and  Scand.,  e.g., 
I.  E.  *  d'ur-,  Gr.  ^vgn,  'L.foreSy  >  G.  T.  *  dur-,  Eng.  door  > 
G.  %^ox  —  2:^ur,  doublets. 

2.  X  =  b'.  I.  E.  b'  >  G.  T.  bh,  b  >  G.  b,  e.  g.,  I.  E.  A/b^d^ 
ablauts.  II.,  Gr.  nv&-  >  G.  T.  Vb^,  Eng.  bid  >  G.  bieten,6ot, 
ge6otett.    No  German  shifting  of  b  >  p  therefore. 

3.  X  =_g\  I.  E.  g'l^  G.  T.  gh,  g  >  G.  g,  e.  gr.,  <  Vg^ 
(Skr.  Vhu  >  G.  T.  Vgu-),  *gud-,  Eng.  God  >  G.  ®ott,  "the 
being  invoked  "  (see  Kluge).     No  German  shifting  of  g>k. 

4.  X  =  g'^,  the  second  series  of  gutturals,  the  "labiaUzed  "  > 
G.  T.  g,  gw  (w)  if  medial,  >  G.  g,  or  zero  if  medial,  e,  g., 
I.  E.  *  ang'^,  L.  angustus  >  G.  T.  angu-,  Go.  aggwus  >  G.  engc 
<  angi  <  *  angwjo.  I.  E.  *  g^^ostis,  L.  hostis  >  G.  T.  ghast, 
gasi,  +  Eng.  guest  >  G.  ®a(l:» 

409.  Form.  II.  x  in  G.,  see  later. 


1.  y  ziz  d.  I.  E.  d  >  G.  T.  t,  Eng.  t.  Vdxnt,  to  eat,  I.  E. 
dont-,  L.  dents  >  G.  T.  tuntli-,  Eng.  tooth  >  Za\xi,  <  zand. 
Before  d  the  vowel  has  disappeared  by  apocope.  The  form 
is  participial  =:  "the  eater"  (Kluge).  Comp.  L.  edere  > 
Eng.  eat  >  Gr.  effen. 

2.  y  —  b.     I.  E.  b  is  very  rare  and  examples  doubtful. 

3.  y  =  gSg^.  I.E.gi>G.T.  k  =  G.k.  <  VgxL,  L.greZar(3 
>  G.  T.  *  kald,  Eng.  cold,  cool  +  G.  Mi,  fii^I,  ablauts.  YI. 
I.  E.  g^  >  G.  T.  kw,  k  =  G. !,  qu,  e.  g,,  <  Vg^xm,  L.  venio  « 
*gvemio)y  G.  T.  queman,  Eng.  come,  +  G.  lommen,  adj.  kc|iicm. 
The  phonetic  change  of  y  >  z  consists  in  the  loss  of  sonancy. 

410.  Form.  III.  x  =  G.  T.  surd  spirant,  I.  E.  z  =  unaspi- 
rated  surd  stop. 


184  PHONOLOGY — PHONETIC   LAWS — VERNER'S.  [411- 

1.  z  =  I.  E.  t.  t  througli  the  transition  stage  t'  =  t  +  surd 
aspiration  >  G.  T.  tli  >  H.  and  L.  G.  d,  e,  g.y  L.  tertius  > 
G.  T.  thridj-,  Eng.  third,  >  tritte, 

2.  2  =  p.    I.  E.  p  >  G.  T.  f,  bilabial,  Eng.  f  >  G.  f :  h.pisc-is 

>  G.  T.  Jislc-os  >  gifc^,  +  Eng.  fish. 

3.  z  =  ls.\  k2.    I.  E.  ki  >  G.  T.  h,  kh,  >  G.  I  c^.    Ex. :  L. 

pecus  >  G.  T.fehu,  Eng.  fee,  >  SSie^.    I.  E.  k2  >  G.  T.  hw,  h, 
Eng.  wh,  >  G.  m,  zero  =  silent  ^.    L.  sequ-or  >  G.  T.  sehw-an 

>  \^¥^,  +  Eng.  see.    L.  quis,  quod  >  G.  T.  hwer^  hwat  +  Eng. 
who,  what,  >  G.  mx,  m^* 

Verner's  Law. 

411.  After  the  first  shifting  and  when  the  accent  was  not  yet 
limited  to  the  root-syllable  (see  420,  2)  a  new  phenomenon  ap- 
peared, viz.,  Verner's  Law  or  the  "  shifting  of  spirants."  The 
G.  T.  surd  spirants  th,  kh,  f,  s  became  sonant  spirants  and 
later  sonant  stops,  when  the  immediately  preceding  vowel  was 
unaccented.  This  affects  only  form.  III.,  but  the  transition 
of  sonant  spirants  into  sonant  stops  is  identical  with  the  tran- 
sition of  the  sonant  spirants  which  sprang  <  sonant  affricate 
according  to  form.  I.  See  408.  Hence  there  is  an  inter- 
change of  the  following  consonants:  th  —  dh,  d  which  became 
G.  t ;  f  —  bh,  b;  kh,  khw  —  gh,  ghw,  g,  w;  s  —  z,  r.    See  416. 

As  to  accent,  see  420.  Students  who  know  Greek  can 
generally  go  by  the  Greek  accent,  which  is  often  still  the  I.  E. 

Ex. :  Gr.  narvp,  Gt.  T.  fathar  >  fadhar  (Go.)  >  fddar  (Ags.)  >  G. 
Skater,  M.  Eng.  has  again  dh  (througli  Norse  influence  ?),  but  L.  frdter, 
G.  T.  hrothar,  Eng.  brother  >  G.  33ruber  according  to  form.  III.  G.  T. 
lithon,  laith,  but  pL  lidlion-,  part,  lidhan-,  Eng.  loathe,  >  G.  leiben  (litt  by 
levelling),  Qelltten.  L.  sequor,  G.  T,  sehwan,  sahw,  segwun-,  segwan-, 
O.  S.  sehan,  sah,  sdwum,  gisewan,  Eng.  see,  saw,  seen  (levelling)  >  G. 
fe^cn,  fa^,  gefe^ien  (levelling,  |  silent).  G.  T.  wesan,  was,  werwn-,  wesan-  > 
Eng.  was  —  were  >  G.  war  (levelling),  mnn,  gewefen  (levelling).  Com- 
pare fiefen  —  !o^  (for,  levelling)  —  geforen. 


413]    PHOKOLOGY — PHONETIC  LAWS— GERMA]^  SHIFTIKG.    185 

412.  In  certain  consonant  groups  the  first  shifting  of  Grimm's  Law 
allows  of  modifications. 

1.  Original  st,  sk,  sp  remain,  e.g.,  L.  vestigium  +  G.  ^ii%,  (Steig;  L. 
sc  in  poscere  +  G.  T.  sk,  Eng.  and  G.  sh,  fc^  in  forfc^en,  waf(^en  (see  457, 4). 
L.  sp  in  spicere,  speculum  +  G.  fpa^cn  +  espy,  spy. 

2.  Before  t  every  dental  has  become  s,  every  labial  f,  every 
guttural  kh,  d),  while  t  remains  intact,  but  st  can  become  ss  by 
assimilation.     Examples  are  very  numerous. 

35u  »cipt  <  waist  <  *waid  +  t;  L.  cap-tus  +  G.  -^aft  (but  see  Kluge); 
L.  noct-em  +  G.  9?ac^t  +  night ;  ?Koc^t  +  might  <  Vmxg',  from  which 
ntttg— mogcit;  ablauts.  VI.;  gewip  <  *wid-to'  a  past  participle  <  l^wxd,  + 
L.  vid-,  +  to  wit,  wist.  The  differentiation  into  st  and  ss  is  difficult  to 
explain.  Rogel  ascribed  it  to  accent,  but  see  Kluge,  P.  and  B.  Beitrage, 
vol.  VIII.  A  different  origin  has  the  st  of  9?ej!,  ma^  (of  a  ship),  ©erjle, 
and  a  very  few  others,  viz.,  <  zd.    For  these  see  Kluge.  See  also  454,  6. 

THE  GERMAN  SHIFTING. 

The  second  or  German  shifting  we  shall  treat  chiefly  with  a  view  to  represent  Eng. 
and  G.  cognates.  We  shall  not  treat  of  every  dialect  separately.  It  must  suffice  to  say 
that  upon  the  extent  of  shifting  the  classification  of  the  dialects  is  based.  See  480. 
For  a  fall  account,  see  Braune's  article  in  P.  and  B.  Beitr.,  vol.  II.  In  fact,  to  Braune 
we  owe  the  best  light  that  has  been  thrown  upon  this  difficult  subject.  This  second 
shifting,  though  coming  within  the  historic  period  of  the  language,  had  been  much  less 
understood  and  more  misrepresented  than  the  first  shifting.  The  material  was  very 
different  from  that  of  the  first  shifting  and  the  result  had  to  be  diffferent,  though  Grimm 
supposed  that  the  first  stage  was  reached  again  in  H.  G.  Nor  is  there  room  to  enter 
into  the  chronology  of  the  various  steps,  though  it  has  been  tolerably  settled.  The 
latest  shifting,  th  >  d,  we  find  still  going  on  in  the  12th  century,  and  is  the  most  exten- 
sive of  all  the  shif tings.  Geographically  the  movement  began  in  the  South  and  the 
farther  North  it  spread  the  less  it  grew  and  the  later  it  occurred.  See  480.  We  follow 
the  order  of  the  formulas.  Where  Eng.  is  identical  with  G.  T.,  as  is  generaUy  the  case, 
the  Eng.  examples  will  at  the  same  time  illustrate  the  corresponding  sounds  and  the 
cognates  of  Eng.  and  G.    For  foreign  words  see  402-494. 

413.    Form.  I.    1.  G.  T.  d  >  G.  t.    Eng.  dead  —  G.  tot ;  do 

—  t^un;  bed — S5ett;  steady — ftetig;  mother  for  M.  Eng.  moder 

—  5iKutter  (see  411) ;  hoard  +  ^ort* 

a.  Where  Eng.  d  —  G.  b  in  a  small  number  of  words,  there  d  has  been 
restored  in  N.  H.  G.  through  L.  or  M.  G.  influence,  M.  H.  G.  showing  t  ; 
or  the  word  has  come  from  L.  G.  into  the  written  language.    Eng.  dumb 


186    PHONOLOGY — PHONETIC  LAWS — GERMAN  SHIFTING.  [414- 

—  buntm;  dam  —  !Damm;  down  —  Suite;  "Dutch"  is  L.  G.  >  Eng.,  wliile 
G.  beutfc^  belongs  to  form.  III.  After  1  and  r  are  some  cases  of  d — b,  e.g., 
wild  —  n)Ub;  mild  —  mttb;  murder  —  ?IJ?orb.  These  are  due  to  a  change 
of  Ags.  th  >  d.  Also  after  n,  e.  g. ,  wind  —  tt)inben;  bind  —  binben.  These 
are  due  to  a  change  of  O.  H.  G.  t  >  d. 

2.  Eng.  b  and  g  =  G.  B  and  g,  see  408,  e.  g.,  bold  —  kl^ ; 
beck  —  33a^ ;  gold  —  ®oIt) ;  garden  —  ®arten»  For  mb  —  mm, 
see  490, 4.  But  b  and  especially  g  have  often  disappeared  in 
Eng.  Compare  hawk  —  ipabi(^t  ;  ^aupt,  <  houbit,  —  head  ; 
B^egcn  —  rain;  SCagen  —  wain.  G.  b  — Eng.  v,  ^ahm  —  have; 
ikhn  —  love,  etc. 

3.  G.  T.  bb  >  G.  :|j^:  Stap^je  <  *rappo,  G.  T.  rabbo-,  but 
^aU  —  raven,    ^nap^je  <  *  knappo,  G.  T.  knabbo-,  but  ^mU 

—  knave.    (EBBe  +  ebb,  is  L.  G. 

4.  G.  T.  gg  >  G.  rf,  but  G.  T.  gg  >  Eng.  dzh  (-dge). 
*mugj6,  Ags.  mycge,  Eng.  midge  —  G.  ^Mt.  *  hrugjo,  Ags. 
hrycge,  Eng.  ridge  —  G.  9lu(fen.  Eng.  edge  —  Scfe,  bridge  — 
Sriicfe,  etc.    Sgge,  barrow,  is  L.  G. 

5.  y  =  sonant  stop  has  sprung  either  from  I,  E.  x  =  sonant  affricate  according  to 
form.  I.  or  from  I.  E.  z  =  surd  stop  >  G.  T.  surd  spirant  according  to  form.  III.  and 
Verner's  Law,  in  both  cases  through  a  sonant  spirant.  Notice  "  affricate  "  is  a  double 
consonant,  "  spirant "  is  a  single  one.  The  process  of  G.  T.  y  >  G.  z  is  loss  of  sonancy 
the  same  as  I.  E.  y  >  G.  T.  z.  Notice  that  consonants  were  doubled,  i.  e.,  lengthened 
before  West-germanic  j,  w,  r,  1,  as  the  examples  show,  see  389,  5. 

414.    Form.  II.     G.  T.  z  >G.  x.     1.  G.  T.  t  >  G.  ts  (3,  ^) 

and  this  remains  when  initial,  after  r,  {,  n  and  when  sprung 
from  tt,  but  becomes  ^  (Grimm's  sign),  supposed  to  have 
been  a  lisped  s,  and  later  s  (f,  §),  see  490,  2. 

In  M.  H.  G.  this  ^  and  s  never  rhyme,  hence  they  must  have  been  different  sounds, 
tt  >  ts  is  much  later  than  t  >  ts. 

Examples  exceedingly  numerous:  tongue  —  Bunge  ;  wart  —  2Barje; 
holt  —  |)olj;  mint  —  SKiinje  <  L.  moneta  through  *  mUbnita  ;  ^sattjan  > 
Eng.  set  —  G.  fe^en  ;  whet  —  tue^tn;  wheat  —  SBeijen;  sweat  —  f(|n)i^en; 
water  —  SBaffer;  hate  —  ^a^,  ^affen^  etc.  All  seeming  exceptions  can  he 
explained  in  some  way  or  other,  e.  g.,  in  foreign  words  introduced  since 
the  shifting :  tar  —  3^eer  <  L.  G.;  temple  —  Zmptl  <  L.  templum  ;  tun 


415]    PHONOLOGY— PHON-ETIC   LAWS — GERMA^- SHIFTIITG.     187 

—  2;onue  <  Keltic (?).  The  combination  tr  is  an  exception.  Compare  also 
ft,  kht,  St,  412,  2.  True  —  treu ;  bitter  —  Mtter  <  G.  T.  Utr-os  ;  winter  — 
SBittter.  ■Winter  and  unter  are  M.  H.  G.  hinder,  under,  see  413,  1,  a. 
Words  introduced  before  the  shifting  are  Germanized,  e.  g.,  plant  -^ 
SJflanjc  <  L.  planta ;  tile  —  Biegel  <  L.  tegula. 

2.  G.  T.  p  >  G.  ^f,  which  remains  initially,  after  m,  and 
when  sprung  from  pp,  but  passes  into  f  after  vowels  and  r,  1. 

Ex, :  Eng.  path  —  G,  9)fat)  ;  pea(-cock)  —  9)fau  <  h.  paw ;  plight  — 
3)pli<^t;  swamp  —  ©um))f  (?) ;  rump  —  3fium))f;  hop,  hip  —  |itpfen;  stop  — 
|lo})fett;  sleep  —  fc^Iafen;  hope  —  '6offen;  sharp  —  fc^arf;  help  —  ^elfen. 

a.  Where  Eng.  and  G.  p  correspond,  they  indicate  either  L.  G.  or  other 
foreign  words  introduced  since  the  shifting,  e.  g. ,  pocks  —  9Jo(f en ;  poke 

—  po(^ett  <  L.  G,  ;  pain  —  3)ein  <  L.  poena;  pilgrim  —  ^i\o,tx  <  L. 
peregrinus  ;  pulpit  —  9)ult  <  L.  pulpitum. 

3.  G.  T.  k  >  G.  kh,  jh  (t^),  except  initial  k  and  double  k, 
which  appears  as  rf,  Eng.  has  frequently  palatalized  its  k 
into  tsh,  written  ch,  tch. 

Ex.:  Eng.  like  —  gleid);  bleak  —  Heic^en;  knuckle  —  ^nod)eI;  knee  — 
^nie  ;  church  —  ^trd}e ;  cook,  kitchen  —  ^oc^,  ^itc^e.  Westgerm,  kk  — 
Eng.  k  —  G.  (f  :  bake,  baker  —  batfen,  SSader  ;  waken  —  n^etfen;  acre  — 
5l(fer;  naked  —  nacft. 

a.  The  links  between  G.  T.  z  and  G.  x  are  probably  surd  stop  +  aspirate,  surd 
stop  +  spirant,  spirant,  e.g..,\i>  k  +  H  >  kkh,  an  affricate,  >  kh.  kkh  is  still  S.  G,, 
tth  is  the  Irish  pronunciation  of  Eng,  th.  The  processes  are  identical  with  those  of 
I,  E,  z  >  G.  T,  X,  But  G.  X  is  a  long  consonant  or  an  affricate,  while  G.  T.  x  <  I,  E,  z 
is  a  single,  weaker  consonant.  Compare  the  present  wai^en  having  a  long  and  strong 
d)  with  SBac^t ;  ^offen,  §anf  with  the  initial  f  as  in  fflr,  gcuer,  »or.  The  latter  corre- 
sponds to  G,  T,  f,  the  former  to  G.  T.  p.    See  below. 

415.  Form.  HI.  G.  T.  x  >  G.  y.  This  shifting  only  took 
place  in  the  dentals.  G.  T.  th  >  G.  d.  Eng.  thing  —  G.  X)ing; 
that  —  ta5 ;  hearth  —  iperb ;  earth  —  Srte ;  brother  —  53ruber» 

As  to  extent  and  time  of  this  shifting,  see  p,  185.  The  process  of  the  shifting  of  the 
G.  T.  surd  spirant  under  the  accent  >  G.  sonant  stop,  final  surd  stop  is  identical  with 
that  of  G,  T.  surd  spirants  unaccented  >  G.  T.  sonant  spirant  >G.  T.  sonant  stop  in 
certain  positions.    For  this  G.  T.  y  >  G.  z,  see  41 1, 

1.  Eng.  h,  gh,  f  correspond  to  G.  ^,  ^,  f  (d),  but  Eng.  gh  is 
often  silent. 


188  PHOiq-OLOGY— PHO^STETIC  LAWS.  [416- 

Ex.:  Eng.  floor  —  G.  ^lur;  fowl  —  SJoget;  heart  —  |)erj;  hart  —  ^irfc^ 
<  liiT^,  ;  might  —  ?P?a(^t;  fraught,  freight  —  ^^rac^t. 

2.  G.  T.  hw,  Eng.  wh  —  G.  tn*  Ex.  :  Eng.  which  —  G. 
m^ ;  whelp  —  3CeIf. 

3.  All  irregularities  must  be  explained  as  before,  either  as  due  to 
levelling  or  to  foreign  origin.    See  414,  1.    herd  —  ^erbe,  L.  G.,  but  ^irtc 

—  shepherd  according  to  rule  ;  throne  —  S^ron  <  Gr.-L.  thronus.     The 
relation  of  S^aufenb  to  thousand  is  not  cleared  up. 

Eng.  f  —  G.  (^,  L.  G. ,  see  493,  4.  h  before  1  and  r  has  been  lost  in  both 
languages.  Comp.  kIvtoc,  Ags.  MM,  —  Eng.  loud,  G.  laut  ;  <  Vkrx, 
ablauts  II.     Lat.  cruor  —  Ags.  Tirea  —  Eng.  raw,  G.  rol^. 

The   Interchanges    Eesulting   from   the   Shifting   of  G.  T. 
Spirants.     See  411. 

416.  Levelling  has  so  largely  done  away  with  the  results  of  Verner's 
law  in  German  that  what  is  left  of  them  may  be  looked  upon  as  isolated 
cases.  They  appear  more  in  derivatives  of  the  same  stem  than  in  the 
verb-inflection. 

1.  ^  —  t  most  frequent :  leiben  —  litt,  gelitten  ;  leiten  ;  fteben  — 
fott,  gefottert.  f —  B:  t)arf,  tiirfen,  5flotcurft  —  Darken,  tierberben  (?). 
^),  ^—r*  I'^^W  W  silent),  3u(^t  —  gesogen,  iperaog.  f  —  r:  35er^ 
luft,  +  loss  —  ijerlieren  (levelling),  ijerloren  +  forlorn;  !iefcn  — 
^ur,  erforen,  +  choose,  chose,  chosen  (s  is  due  to  levelling). 

417.  Correspondences  between  Eng.  and  G.  consonants 
outside  of  the  shiftings. 

1.  Loss  of  n  before  spirants  in  G.  T.  and  later.  Before 
G.  T.  kh  as  in  fa'^en  (archaic  for  fangen)  <  *fanhan  ;  bacbte  < 
*danhte,  +  thought,  etc.  Ags.  —  Eng.  also  before  th  and  f, 
where  G.  has  preserved  n.     Compare:  tooth  —  3^^^)  mouth 

—  ?0]unb;  but  south  —  ©lib,  of  L.  G.  origin;  soft  —  fanft,  but 
fa(^t,  of  L.  G.  origin. 

2.  Eng.  wr  —  G.  r:  Eng.  write  —  rei^en,  ri^en  ;  wrench  — 
renfett ;  wretch  —  Slede ;  wring  —  ringen, 

3.  Eng.  w,  r,  1,  m  correspond  to  G.  ti),  r,  I,  m. 


419]  PHONOLOGY — ACCEN^T.  189 

4.  For  Eng.  m  —  G.  n,  see  490,  5.  For  Eng.  mb  —  G. 
mm,  see  490,  4. 

5.  Eng.  s  (original  s)  —  G.  s:  house  —  ^a\x^;  sink  —  ftnfcit* 

a.  Eng.  X  —  Q.  Xt  ^^*  The  phonetic  value  of  the  sign  is  the  same  in 
both  languages.  The  sign  x,  borrowed  from  Latin,  stands  for  6)i,  U,  tf^. 
Ex.:  Eng.  wax  —  G.  tt)ac^fen  ;  fox  —  ^u^^  ;  axle  —  5lc^fe;  box  —  a3ud)fe 
<  Gr.  TTv^ig;  box  —  SSud^^kum  <  L.  buxtis.   Eng.  s— G.  f(^,  see  490,  1. 

ACCENT. 

418.  We  are  following  still  the  traditional  method  of  treating  of  the  accent,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  speaking  we  never  divide  the  word  into  the  syllables  or  the  sentence 
into  the  words  as  they  are  printed  or  written.  Such  a  division  is  purely  for  the  eye  and 
artificial.  We  speak  in  "  breathgroups,''''  as  Sweet  calls  them.  Sievers  uses  "  Sprach- 
takt,'''  but  "  Sprechtakt "  would  be  better.  A  breathgroup  consists  of  a  certain  number 
of  sounds  that  can  be  pronounced  "  in  one  breath,"  as  we  say.  If  one  or  two  sounds 
ha\  e  very  strong  stress  then  the  number  of  "  syllables  "  in  the  group  is  small,  because 
the  store  of  air  is  spent.  If  one  syllable  has  only  the  amount  of  air  spent  upon  a 
secondary  or  medium  accent,  then  the  number  of  syllables  can  be  larger.  Eng.  and 
G.  have  a  prevailingly  falling  rhythm,  that  is,  the  stress  falls  upon  the  initial  sounds  or 
syllable  of  a  group.  French  is  different.  Its  stress  is  very  uniform  and  the  predomi- 
nant stress  very  difficult  to  place  in  the  group.  Excellent  authorities,  both  French 
and  Dutch,  claim  that  the  stress  lies  at  the  begining  ;  other  authorities,  just  as  high, 
that  it  lies  at  the  end  of  the  group.    The  French  groups  are  very  long. 

In  G.  and  Eng.  the  amount  of  stress  concentrated  upon  some  part  of  the  group 
varies,  else  there  would  be  a  great  monotony  as  in  French,  but  Fr.  has  a  more  varied 
intonation  or  "  tone,"  which  gives  it  an  advantage  over  Eng.  and  G. 

1.  For  very  trustworthy  division  into  breathgroups,  see  Sweet's  transcriptions  of 
Eng.,  G.  and  Pr.  in  his  "  Handbook."  For  the  whole  difficult  subject  of  the  synthesis 
of  sounds,  see  Sweet  and  also  Sievers'  Phonetik,  §  33.  Notice  that  the  principle  of 
breathgroups  is  recognized  when  we  speak  of  proclitics  and  enclitics.  All  syncope, 
elision,  contraction,  metre,  assimilation  take  place  according  to  this  principle.  When 
there  are  too  many  syllables  to  to  be  pronounced  conveniently  by  one  breath-impulse 
some  are  cut  off  and  always  according  to  a  certain  fixed  rule  varying  with  the  different 
languages.  Or  if  the  sounds  coming  together  in  a  group  are  very  different  we  assimi- 
late them  to  each  other.    This  we  call  "  ease  of  utterance  "  or  "  euphony." 

4l9u  We  distinguish  three  degrees  of  accent  or  "stress," 
viz.,  chief  (strong,  primary),  medium  (secondary),  and  weak, 
marked  respectively  1,  1,  ^.  Thus  :  Sl'pfel,  ba'n!Ba>,  ^a'vih 
fea"r!ei't» 

1.  "  Weak"  also  inclades  "  unaccented,"  when  there  are  not  syllables 
enough,  e.  g.,  D'bilga''rte"'n,  5l'^)fe"'lbau^m,    But  when  the  word  is  very  long 


190  PHOI^OLOGY— ACCENT.  [420^ 

or  in  a  group  of  several  words  we  may  distinguisli  not  merely  between 
weak  and  unaccented,  but  the  variety  of  stress  can  be  further  marked  by 

1        2     4       3 

figures,  6.  g.y  SBere'bfa^nifei^t  (33e   unmarked   or   4^32^.   ©ro^^erjogtuni/ 

148  2       5  13245 

5lltertum!3funbe,  SDierjigid^riger. 

Accent  in  Uncompounded  "Words. 

420.  The  chief  accent  rests  in  all  uncompounded  words  on 
the  stem-syllable  (no  matter  if  suffixes  and  inflectional  end- 
ings follow).  This  syllable  is  always  the  first,  e.  g.,  ^a'kv, 
ija'terlic^,  fo'I^fam,  Sa'c^erlti^feit,  ^lei'not,  f(^mei'(^eltt,  tie  ^u'ngernfcen* 

1.  Exceptions:  letc'nbig  from  Ic'&eu;  words  in -ei  and -ter, -teren,  e.g., 
MaUxd',  Benebct'en,  »ermalebei'en,  ftubie'ren,  SBarbie'r;  lut^e'rifd)  (long  e),  mean- 
ing "  Lutheran,"  pertaining  to  that  confession,  but  lu't|)er(t)fd),  of,  per- 
taining to  Luther;  at^e'rifc^  ;  a  few  derivatives  in -^a'ftioi  (see  526, 2); 
tt)a^r:^a'fttg,  IeiB:^a'fti9»  sometimes  tcil^a'ftig;  also  H)a:^rf(^et'nli(^,  but  see  422,2. 

2.  This  limitation  of  the  primary  accent  to  the  root  syllable  is  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Germanic  languages.  It  is  called  the  logical  or  "gebundene"  accent.  The  other 
Indo-European  languages  have  the  "free"  accent,  which  can  faU  on  any  syllable. 
The  original  accent  must  have  been  preserved  in  G.  T.  until  after  the  shifting  of  I.  E. 
z  >  G.  T.  X,  because  then  the  law  of  spirants  (see  411)  went  into  effect. 

3.  The  Teutonic  element  of  Eng.  has,  of  course,  the  same  accent  as  G.  and  even  the 
Norman-French  element  in  Eng.  has  largely  submitted  to  the  Germanic  accent,  e.g., 
sea'son  <  L.  satio'nem  ;  rea'son  <  L.  ratio'nem  ;  li'berty  <  L.  liberta'tem.  Compare 
the  foreign  accent  in  G.  ©aifo'n,  raijonnie'rcn,  Ciuatttd't.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  two 
past  participles  and  the  pret.  pi.  were  not  stem-accented,  originally,  standing  in  con- 
trast with  the  pres.  and  pret.  sg.    The  accented  sufllxes  we  cannot  enumerate. 

Accent  in  Compound  Words. 

421.  In  compound  words  the  chief  accent  rests  upon  the 
stem-syllable  of  the  first  component  part  if  the  second  part 
is  a  noun  (subst.  or  adj.) ;  on  the  stem-syllable  of  the  second 
part  if  this  is   a  verb  or  derived  from  a  verb  :    ^^a'brftra^f e, 

\\m\,  gii'rfprec^,  U'rteil,  ijo'rne^m,  ^O'li'fgunft ;   but  ^crfpre'(^en,  ertei';= 
leti,  ijerne'^men,  betra'gert,  ijotWngen,  mi^U'ngen,  i^ollfo'mmen, 

1.  This  old  principle  should  be  understood  even  by  the  beginner,  though  to  him  there 
wUl  seem  to  be  many  exceptions,  which  an  advanced  scholar  will  generally  account 
lor.    Sl'ntworten,  u'vtcileit  are  no  exceptions,  because  they  are  derived  from  the  nouns 


422]  PHONOLOGY — ACCENT.  191 

3l'nttt»Dtt,  U'rteit;  nor  are  bad  SSerla'ngen,  ber  93efe'^I,  uerite'^mlic^,  because  they  are  de- 
rived from  the  corresponding  verbs.  SoUfo'mmen  has  the  correct  accent,  because  it  ia 
a  past  participle. 

The  prefixes  are  fully  treated  in  the  word-formation,  which  see. 

422.     The  more  striking  exceptions  are  as  follows  : 

1.  A  large  group  of  words  which  have  not  become  real  compounds 
but  have  sprung  from  mere  juxtaposition  in  orthography  :  2)a^  Sek^o'c^, 
vivat ;  »ie(Iei'c&t,  33iellie't»(^en,  Sekwo'^I,  SJergi'^meinnii^t,  |)an^na'rr,  ^o^er== 
prie')ler,  Sangewei'le  (but  Ca'ngweil  after  the  genuine  compound  ^u'rjwein, 
3a:^»r^u'nbert,  Sa^rjc'^nt,  bretei'nig,  !Drciei'mgfeit,  atler-  +  -lk'b\t,  -c'rjl,  -^ei'ligeif' 
feft,  etc. ;  2)reif5'ni9^fejl.     Their  etymologies  are  apparent. 

2.  In  a  number  of  adjectives,  most  of  them  ending  in  -lic!^,  and  their 
derivatives,  the  chief  accent  has  shifted  from  the  original  position  to  the 
syllable  preceding  the  suffix :  ijorju'gtic^,  but  SJo'rjug;  vortre'fflid) ;  abf(^eu'li(^, 
but  Wb]^tn;  auabru'cfUd),  but  Sfu'^brucf;  bie  2}ortre'fflid)!eit,  bie  5lu^fu'^rlic^!eit, 
Icibei'gcn.  In  some  the  accent  is  uncertain,  but  the  chief  accent  on  the 
first  element  is  preferable,  e.  g.,  la'nbgreiflid)  better  than  l)anbgre{' flic^ ;  no't== 
irenbig,  n)a'^rfd)eiulid),  ci'gentumlic^.  A  distinction  is  sometimes  made  be- 
tween ei'gentumlic^,  "  belonging  to,"  and  eigentii'mlid^,  "  peculiar  to."  Notice 
offenba'r. 

3.  fearml^e'rjig,  full  of  pity,  ^ar-  (formerly  (£§ar)  as  in  ^arfrei'tag,  Good- 
Friday,  .^arwo'c^e,  Holy  Week  (^  a  r-,  +  c<7?v,  sorrow,  but  also  ^a'rtvodje), 
i^rD^nlei'c^nant,  Corpus  Christi,  perhaps  because  the  meaning  of  the  first 
element  is  no  longer  clear,     ©ubo'll,  ©iibfubo'fl,  norbioe'flHc^  as  in  English. 

4.  In  a  large  number  of  adjectives  in  which  the  first  element  denotes 
a  comparison  or  a  high  degree,  e.^r,,  '^imntel^o'c^,  as  high  as  heaven,  ei^fa'lt, 
as  cold  as  ice,  fo^lfc^tDa'rj,  the  accent  may  stand  on  the  second  element,  but 
must  remain  on  the  first  when  the  adj.  is  inflected,  ©teinrei'c^,  ''very 
rich,"  originally  "  rich  in  precious  stones,"  jlei'nrei^,  stony,  are  sometimes 
distinguished. 

5.  aller-  is  accented  only  in  a'tter^anb  and  a'llerlet,  doubtful  in  several, 
as  in  a'llerfeit^.  aH-  is  generally  unaccented  :  attei'n,  aUma'i)lid),  aUgemei'n, 
but  also  SClImac^tr  S('E»ater,  WUtaa,  and  its  derivatives,  but  also  aKtd'gUd),  as 
sub  4. 

6.  utt-.  For  this  prefix  it  is  diflScult  to  find  a  general  rule.  The  best 
founded  and  most  practical  is  this,  based  upon  nominal  and  verbal  com- 
pounds :   Un-  compounded  with  nouns  and  adjectives  not  derived  from 


192  PHONOLOGY — ACCENT.  [423- 

verbs  attracts  tlie  chief  accent ;  if  they  are  derived  from  verbs,  then  the 
stem-syllable  retains  its  original  accent,  e,g.y  u'ttfrud^tbar,  u'nbanfbar,  u'nflar, 
U'nmenfc^,  but  unglau'Mt(^,  unfa'glic^,  unent:6e'|rli(|,  un»cra'nttt)ortlt(^,  un^egrei'flicl. 
Notice,  however,  utte'nbt{(^,  ungelcu'er  —  u'nge^euer.     See  a. 

a.  With  regard  to  adjectives  there  is  also  a  feeling  approaching  a  principle,  that  un 
should  have  the  chief  accent,  when  a  regular  adjective  exists,  of  which  the  compound 
with  un-  denotes  the  contrary  or  negation  :  brau'(!^6av,  u'n6rau(^6av,  fi'c^tBar,  u'txHc^tfeav, 
etc.    This  f peling  frequently  unsettles  the  accent,  as  untterjei'^Ii^  >  u'tiwer^eipc^. 

7.  Dter-  varies  in  accent  in  compounds  consisting  of  three  parts.  When 
it  belongs  to  the  second  part  it  has  chief  stress,  and  the  third  part  secon- 
dary stress  :  D'krfiefer^ijerle^^ung,  injury  of  the  upper  jawbone.  But  if  the 
second  and  third  form  one  subdivision  and  oBer-  denotes  rank, then  it  has 
less  stress  than  the  third  part  and  the  second  has  chief  stress  :  Dkr^^ 
fc^u'Ile'l^rer  =  chief  school-teacher ;  Dkr^^mu'nbfc^e'nf ;  Dkrgeri'c^t^a^nroalt, 
chief  attorney.  But  accent  the  first  and  last  examples  differently  and 
they  mean  different  persons,  viz.,  D'krfc^ulle^^rer,  teacher  at  a  high- 
school  ;  D'ber9eri(i)t^anHvaU,  attorney  at  a  high-court  of  justice. 

423.  In  compound  adverbs  the  chief  accent  falls  generally 
upon  the  second  element,  if  they  are  compounded  of  a  simple 
adverb  and  a  preceding  or  following  noun  or  pronoun;  or  if 
compounded  of  two  adverbs,  e.  g.,  bergau'f,  firoma'b,  ja^rei'n, 
ja^rau'^,  jufo'Ige,  anfta'tt,  :^inu'6cr,  Ijtvoo'x,  fofo'rt,  ta^i'n,  fca^e'r, 
ixkxaW^,  liBerei'tt,  ukr^au')Jt,  i)or^a'nt>en,  ab^a'nten* 

1.  This  includes  their  derivatives  fofo'rtig,  jufrle'beti,  ijor'^a'nbcn* 
Exceptions  are:  1,  compounds  which  contain  demonstrative  and  posses- 
sive pronouns,  e.g.,  be'mnac^,  be'rgefialt,  mei'netwegen,  etc.;  a'nber-  or  a'nber^-, 
-'f^alb,  -'mxt^,  -gej!ern,  6.g.,  a'nhamo,  a'nbcrfeit^,  o'kr'^alb,  ^ei'mwart^,  »o'r^ 
toiixt^,  ^o'rgeflernr  etc.;  be'nnoc^;  e'twa;  2,  many  compounds  which  are  fused 
adverbial  phrases  and  derivatives  from  compounds.  They  retain  their 
original  word  accent,  e.g.,  a'ngeftc^t^,  a'bfeit^,  na'd^mittag^,  H'btxmoxQm, 
ju'fefenb^. 

See  the  rhetorical  accent,  426. 

424.  For  the  secondary  accent  rules  can  be  given  only  in 
derivatives  and  compound  words. 

1.  Certain  nominal  suffixes  have  always  medium  stress. 


427]  PHOI^'OLOGY — ACCENT.  193 

a.  Substantive  suffixes:  -at,  -ut,  -ofc;  -^eit,  -ridjt; -in, -!eit, 
-lein,  -MuQ,  -ni^,  -\oX,  fcbaft,  -turn,  e.  g.,  §ei'ma't,  ^lei'no't; 
(S'njigleiU,  gi'nfierni^^,  %xvi!\i\<C\,  ^b'nigtu'm. 

b.  Adjective  suffixes  :  -bar,  -^aft,  -ict)t  (?),  -if(^  (?),  -lic^,  -fam, 
-felig,  e,  g.,  MWqWv,  i'^xm^a'\t,  c'rct^c^t,  le'rri'fd),  la'ttgfa'm, 
tru'6feUig» 

2*  In  nominal  compounds  the  secondary  stress  falls  upon 
the  root-syllable  of  the  second  part,  e.  g.j  9lu'(fgra't,  i^a'^rtva'iTer, 
Slu'getiferte,  ^li'c^terfu'Uung,  U'ngere'^tigfeit,  k'hmmxCt)t,  ^i'lfgbe^ 
tit'rfttg, 

3.  In  doable  compounds  when  one  or  both  parts  are  again  compounded 
the  secondary  stress  falls  upon  the  first  or  the  only  stem-syllable  of  the 
second  part.  But  care  must  be  taken  in  properly  separating  the  parts, 
e.  g.y  a3e'tt-i)o>'^attg,  diMmnQ^-a^Ua^t,  ©o'lb-k^rgwe^^rf,  3)e'lH'i'nb[(^u^^, 
i^e'Ibma\f(i^att;  but  |)a'nbfc§u""^-ma"c^er,  ^u'^bavrm-t)o%  Sc^n'ft|le""IIertterei'n. 

The  misplaced  medium  stress  would  give  no  meaning  at  all,  e.  g., 
^n'^-ban^m^oU,  because  ku'm|o'lj  is  meaningless.  In  Seu'eri)er|t(^erun9^- 
gefe'ttfc^aft  secondary  accent  on  -ft'c^-  is  only  possible,  if  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  f^eu'er-re'ttung^gefcttfc^aft. 

4.  The  foreign  endings,  of  course,  also  cross  this  accentuation,  e.  g., 

S3u'd)brucferei'f  U'nterfefretaria't,  i'rrlid^telie'ren. 

425.  Unaccented  are  all  inflectional  endings,  many  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes.     The  syllables  generally  contain  e  =  eh. 

426.  The  rhetorical  accent  can  interfere  with  the  placing 
of  the  various  degrees  of  stress,  as  in  English :  ta^  3Bt(0  ni(^t 
e'rjagen  fonliem  ttc'rjagen  ;  la'xim  and  tabei'  ;  ei'nmat,  einma'L  In 
Sch.'s  Wallenstein  occurs  ^a'ttn  ni(^t  fein,  fann  ni'(^t  fein,  etc. 

427.  The  accent  in  foreign  words  is  as  a  rule  foreign.  Very  few  words 
have  taken  German  accent  when  introduced  since  the  O.  H.  G.  period. 
Substantives  in  -ie  and  -ci,  verbs  in  -teren  retain,  for  instance,  the  prima- 
ry accent  on  these  suffixes,  e.g.,  SWagie',  S^eologic',  2)ru(ferei',  fhibie'ren, 
^antic'ren. 


194  HISTORICAL    COMMENTARY   01^   ACCIDEKCE.  [428- 

B.     HISTORICAL    COMMENTARY   UPON   THE 
ACCIDENCE. 

Comments  on  the  Noun-Declension.     1.  Vowel-Declension, 

[See  table  on  next  page.'] 

There  are  two  numbers,  three  genders.  Only  two  cases  have  now  endings,  viz., 
G.  sg.  and  D.  pi.,  but  other  parts  of  speech  still  inflect  for  the  N.  and  A.  The  number 
of  cases  was  gradually  reduced.    In  O.  H.  G.  there  is  still  an  Instrumental. 

428.  1.  There  were  two  large  systems  of  declension  according  as  the 
stem  ended  in  a  vowel  or  in  a  consonant.  Vowel  stems  ended  in  o  or  in  a. 
We  generally  count  here  also  the  i-  and  w-stems,  but  they  really  belong 
to  the  consonant  stems,  since  i  and  u  have  the  functions  of  consonants 
as  well  as  of  vowels.  Stems  in  o  (jo,  wo)  belong  to  the  I.  E.  e  —  o 
ablaut-series  and  are  always  masculine  or  neuter.  Stems  in  d  {jd,  wd) 
belong  to  the  a  —  a  series  and  are  always  feminine,  jo,  wo,  jd,  wd  are 
counted  as  separate  classes,  because  j  and  w  produced  some  peculiar 
changes,  w-stems  are  very  rare,  since  they  soon  became  i-stems,  e.g., 
sunu,  pi.  suni,  (So^nc.  There  is  only  one  neuter  i-stem  in  0.  H.  G.,  viz., 
meri,  ba^  9)Zeer  +  L.  mare. 

2.  The  consonant  stems  end  in  n,  r,  in  a  dental  and  in  a  guttural.  The 
most  frequent  are  the  n-BXems,,  to  which  went  over  a  great  many  fem. 
nouns  from  the  earliest  times,  e.g.,  zunga  +  L.  lingua  for  dingua. 

3.  J.  Grimm  fancied  that  there  was  strength  in  the  vowel-declension  and  so  called  it 
"  strong,"  the  consonant  declension  he  called  "  weak."  The  names  have  been  gener- 
ally accepted  and  though  Grimm's  reasons  are  fanciful  the  terms  have  the  advantage 
of  brevity. 

4.  The  stem  and  case  endings  have  been  very  much  reduced  according  to  certain 
principles  called  the  "  laws  of  finals"  and  the  "  rules  of  syncope."  We  cannot  illus- 
trate these  here,  as  it  would  presuppose  a  knowledge  of  the  older  dialects.  There  was 
also  a  great  levelling  of  oases,  e.  g.,  the  N.  sg.  fem.  (a- stem)  took  a  from  the  A.  sg.  fem. 
Its  own  vowel  had  to  go  according  to  the  law  of  finals, 

0  and  Jb-Stems. 

5.  The  nouns  sub  46,  1,  in  el,  en  (<  em  or  en),  and  cr  are  o-stems  that 
lost  the  e  of  the  plural  in  M.  H.  G.,  see  434, 3.  Masc.  in  er  <  aere  <  dH 
(originally  j<?-stems)  and  those  of  the  form  wgel  retained  their  c  longest. 
The  nouns  sub  46,  3  are  the  original  j(?-stems,  in  which  e  is  the  remnant 
of  jo,  O.  H.  G.  i.  When  this  e  was  lost,  the  nouns  were  treated  as  com- 
mon o-stems  and  now  belong  to  the  II.  strong  class  sub  50,  4.  Notice 
that  the  umlaut  of  a>-stem  runs  through  sing,  and  pi.  ;  the  umlaut  of 


HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   OK   ACCIDEKCE. 


195 


rjl      . 


d 


fl  a  c  1=1 
S  ri  0  5 


73     Q     CS     W 


I      'T 


03  Oi  OJ 
+i  +^  -tJ 

02  Cp  QO 
O)  OJ  (D 
bC&D&C 


oi  oS  o 

o  el  i=) 

.9  .S  .S  .5 

<isi  <^  <ac!  <e6 


CO    (^  <i5i  <0S  <^<i^ 


hirte 
hirtes 
hirte 
hirte 

hirte 
hirte 
hirten 

1^ 

QQ 

fe 

td 
d 

hirti 

hirtes 

hirte 

hirti 

hirt(i)u 

hirte 

hirt(e)o 
hirtim 

^d 

cd 
d 

a  a  i3 

03  f3   1=1  d 

fc>c  tiC  &X)  be 

a  fl  fl  a 

s  1=1  ^  ri 

N    N    N    N 


a  a  d 

.2.9  9 

asa 


a 

!=i   C<0 

be  be  bo 

d  a  a 
d  d  IS 

N    N    N 


-a 


cS.S.S 

f^    f-i    t^ 

<0    <D    <D 


fl  a  9 
a<o<o 

0)    <D    OJ 


S 


0)    OJ    ©    0) 

fciD  bobt)  be 

9  9  '^  9 
>  >  >  t> 


3     ^  o)  ^  ^     <ce  <o 


:^  . 

6  d 


OJ    (D  JS 

_•  o  be  be  o  be 

n  ^  ^  oj  <^  ^ 


be  be  be 


45  4:^  4:^  «M 

Oj    O)    CD    05 

^H     tl     ^     ^ 


O    (J)   (jj    q;i   0) 
^.  ^  ^  rO  -O 

be  be  be  be 


03    0)    (B    © 

be  be  be  be 


■+-J  -(-3  +j 


M^MM       ^^.^ 


(B     QJ 


a  a 

(CO)® 


a 

a  S 
<<33  <o  <o 

O)   ©   0) 

be  be  be 


•aaiinosBj^ 


;z;OQ<1      <jd50 


•auiuTina^ 


(DO)        .S    O)    o 
,_;    Oj   (5j    cS        'oj  'o;  'O) 


S  a 

.0      S  CD     .52  .t:  ^ 


m 

M  o  o  o 


^ 


a 

0)    <V 

+3    -ts    -(J 
S-    ^H    fn 

000 
^    ^    ^ 


la^^naj^ 


429]  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   01^   ACCIDEiq-CE.  195a 

an  i-stem  appears  now  only  in  the  plural,     ^afe  is  treated  like  a  jo-stem, 
<  O.  H.  Gt.  chdsi  <  cdsius  <  Latin  cdseus. 

6,  The  feminines  and  neuters  in  -ni^  sub  50,  1  ended  in  M.  H.  Q.  in 
-e  {-nisse),  both  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  The  ending  of  the  sing,  was  lost  in 
early  N.  H.  G.  Also  the  -e  of  the  neuters  with  ®e-  sub  50,  4  was  lost, 
and  they  really  belong  to  the  first  class,  see  46,  2.  Both  groups  are 
primitive  jo-stems.  The  monosyllabic  neuters  of  50,  4  followed  the 
masc.  6>-stems  of  50,  2,  and  therefore  cannot  have  umlaut.  In  O.  and 
M,  H.  G.  these  neuters  were  either  uninflected  or  took  the  -ir,  -er  of  56  ; 
see  431.  The  masculines  sub  50,  2,  3  are  o-atems,  and  come  properly 
by  their -e.     See  p.  195.  ' 

429.     /-Stems. 

The  paradigms  of  "  kraf t "  and  "  gast "  show  which  cases 
were  entitled  to  umlaut.  The  sg.  of  the  masc.  very  early  took 
its  Gr.  and  D.  from  the  o-stems.  The  feminine  was  made  in- 
variable in  M.  H.  G.  since  the  apparent  cause  of  umlaut  had 
disappeared  and  since  all  other  feminines,  strong  and  weak, 
did  not  vary  in  the  root- vowel. 

1.  The  old  bulk  of  the  third  class  is  made  up  of  e-stems.  Their 
number  has  been  increased  by  u-,  o-,  jo-,  and  cons-stems.  %\i^  and  Bci^n 
were  originally  cows-stems.  Comp.  Gr.  7rod-6f,  L.  dent-is.  They  appear 
as  -w-stems  in  Gothic,  as  t-stems  in  O.  H.  G.  ^ad)t  is  also  a  cons-stem. 
Comp.  L.  noct-is.  Isolated  cases  of  its  old  inflection  are  ^a<^t^  the  ad- 
verbial genitive  and  the  dative  plural  in  SSei^nac()tert  <  zen  wihen  nahten. 
In  ^Zad^tigatt  +  nightingale  appears  the  genitive  of  its  ^■-stem  inflection  ; 
compare  also  SBrauttgam  -f  bridegroom,  lit.  "bridesman."  (See  489,  5). 
An  isolated  -w-case  is  w^anben"  <  O.  H.  G.  Mntum,  dative  plural,  in  ab^ 
lanben,  lost;  sor^anben  -f  "  on  hand."  Mitxi'*  is  an  isolated  dative  plural; 
the  nominative  plural  is  obsolete.  Compare  the  Eng.  umlaut  in  mouse, 
mice ;  louse,  lice ;  loft,  lift,  Ags.  lyft,  but  Go.  luftus ;  cow,  kine,  etc. 
2)a^  Slof  is  O.  H.  G.  masculine  i  stem. 


196  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   OIT   ACCIDENCE.  [430- 

430.  1.  A  small  group  of  fern,  is  interesting,  because  tlio  sg.  was  lev- 
elled in  favor  of  the  longer  umlaut-forms  of  the  G.  and  D.,  while  the  pi. 
became  weak  at  the  same  time.  For  instance,  bie  ®nte,the  duck,  inflected 
M.  H.  G.  at  first  ant,  ente,  ente,  ant ;  pi.  ente,  ente,  enten,  ente.  Then  it 
became  ente  for  the  whole  sg.,  enten  for  the  pi.,  as  it  is  now.  Similarly 
M.  H.  G.  Uuot,  now  bie  33Iute  +  blowth ;  sM,  now  bie  ©ciule,  column ;  i^urch, 
bic  %\xx&ii  +  furrow,  no  umlaut  in  M.  H.  G. ;  huf,  bie  ^ufte,  this  form 
*'huft"  with  excrescent  t,  +  hip,  also  Eng.  with  umlaut,  +  Ags,  hype; 
stuot,  bie  ©tute,  +  stud.  %^xmt,  Ba^re  +  tear,  SCfjur  (?)  +  door,  are  origi- 
nally plurals,  that  have  become  singulars.    See  Kluge. 

a.  In  this  way  doublets  could  spring  up,  e.  g.,  M.  H.  G.  sg.  stat^  stete,  stete,  stat  fur- 
nished  bie  ©tatt  +  stead,  bie  ©tabt,  pi.  ©tabte,  city,  and  bie  ©tatte,  pi.  -n,  place,  spot- 
all  +  Eng.  stead,  ©tatt  also  occurs  in  the  sense  of  representation  "  in  place  of," 
anftatt,  an  feiner  ©tatt,  an  ^InbeSflatt,  to  adopt  as  one's  own  chUd.  Another  such  is 
M.  H.  G./aW— modern  bie  %Ck^xi,  pi.  gaf^rten,  ride,  and  bie  %^xt^,  pi.  ga^rten,  track, 
scent. 

2.  All  nouns  in  -^eit,  -feit,  -fc^aft  and  a  large  group  of  others  were  in 
M.  H.  G.  still  strong  (mostly  i-stems),  but  are  now  weak. 

3.  The  modern  fem.  nouns  in  -ttlf  pi.  -innettj  are  also  strong  in  0.  H.  G. 
The  suffix  -in  <  -njd.  See  paradigm  of  mdgin.  They  had  the  fate  of 
all  fem.  nouns,  viz.,  invariable  in  the  sg.,  generally  -en  in  the  pi. 

431.    Plurals  in  -er.     See  paradigm,  p.  195. 

1.  This  sign  started  from  old  os-stems  corresponding  to  L. 
genus,  generis  ;  corpus,  corporis.  It  is  rare  in  O.  H.  G.  in  the 
sg.,  where  it  may  have  been  even  reintroduced  from  the  pi. 
In  the  G.  and  D.  pi.  -o,  -urn  are  the  regular  case-endings. 
-ir  therefore  is  really  stem-ending,  but  it  was  too  convenient 
a  form  for  the  pi.  to  escape  being  used  as  a  pi.  sign.  Some 
eight  to  ten  nouns  are  thus  inflected  in  O.  H.  G.  In  M.  H.  G. 
-er  spread  and  gradually  formed  a  pi.  even  of  mascuHnes. 

2.  The  word  ®i  is  originally  a  jo-Bieva.  The  double  plurals  in  -c  and 
-er  have  sprung  up  from  the  apparent  necessity  of  distinguishing  sg.  and 
pi.  of  neuters,  which  according  to  the  law  of  finals  had  to  lose  all  end- 
ings. Some  nouns  took  e;  some  er,  some  both.  In  the  latter  a  distinc- 
tion in  meaning  developed.  See  58  and  the  inflection  of  wort  and  kaJb^ 
p.  195. 


434]  HISTORICAL   COMMEI^TARY  OK   ACCIDEKCE.  197 

2.  Consonant  Declension. 

432.  The  masculine  and  neuter  n-stems  ended  once  in  -on, 
-jon,  the  feminines  in  -on,  -jon.  They  correspond  to  the  L. 
homo,  hominis  ;  fulmen,  fulminis  ;  ratio,  rationis.  As  to  their 
frequency  in  the  Teutonic  languages,  see  478,  5.  The  Latin 
declension  shows  also  in  the  singular,  how  the  case-endings 
were  added  ;  in  O.  H.  G.  these  appear  still  in  the  pi.,  e.  g.,  in 
herzono  6  is  sign  of  G.  pi.  What  was  therefore  the  mere  stem- 
suffix  has  become  a  means  of  inflection  in  the  course  of  time. 

1.  r-stems  are  the  names  of  relationship,  ^aitx,  etc.  They  with  the 
dental  stems  were  forced  into  the  strong,  first  into  the  o-,  then  into  the 
t-declension  lor  lack  of  case-endings,  which  could  appear  only  in  the  Q. 
and  D.  pi.,  viz^  fatero,  faterum.  Already  in  M.  H.  G.  the  umlaut 
appears  in  the  r-stems. 

2.  Nouns  like  @ute,  3D?enge,  Oro^c  end  in  i  or  in  in  O.  H.  G.:  guoti,  managi,  -In.  That 
is,  they  wereja-  and  J^n-stems.  They  are  all  derivatives  from  adjectives,  and  those  in 
in  are  later  than  those  in  %.  In  O.  H.  G.  they  had  i  or  in  throughout  except  in  the  G. 
and  D.  pi.,  which  were  managino,  managim  respectively.  Therefore  umlaut  through- 
out. The  in-fovms,  had  to  coincide  in  time  with  the  strong  feminines  in  -in{n)  at  least 
in  the  sg.  and  therefore  disappeared.  They  were  rarely  used  in  the  pi.  See  paradigm 
of  mdgin,  p.  195. 

433.  1.  All  feminines  having  now  no  inflection  in  the  sg.  and  the  old  strong  fem. 
having  taken  e(n)  in  the  plural,  it  is  diflBlcult  to  tell  the  original  vowel-stems  from 
w-stems.  It  would  he  correct  to  summarize  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  them, 
thus: 

All  fem.  nouns  have  become  strong  in  the  sg.  and  most  of  them  by 
far,  weak  in  the  plural. 

2.  The  fem.  a-stems  (see  paradigm)  had  already  two  cases  in  -en,  viz.,  G,  and  D.  pi., 
the  other  two  were  like  the  whole  sg.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  if  N.  and  A. 
pi.  also  took  -en  and  thus  a  sharp  contrast  was  formed  between  the  sg.  with  no  varia- 
tion and  the  pi.  with  -en  throughout.  By  this  levelling  and  by  the  jon  (i  and  in)  stems 
the  loss  of  -en  in  the  sg.  of  w-stems  was  brought  about. 

434.  1.  -nin  the  D.  and  Gt.  sg.  is  still  frequent  in  the  16th  century  and 
is  preserved  in  certain  phrases  and  in  poetry.  Schiller's  Wallenstein's 
Lager  has  ^ir(^en,  ^lubtn,  ©onnen.    f^eftgentauert  in  ber  (£rben  (Sch.).    See  171. 

3.  The  masculines  in  -e  are  the  bulk  of  old  ?i-stems  in  M.  H.  G.  Some 
nouns  have  become  strong,  e.  g ,  Star,  |)a^n  ;  others  have  become  weak, 
^irtc  (originally  j6>-stem),  §elb  (already  in  M.  H.  G.).     See  61;  518,  I,  2. 

3.  As  to  the  nouns  in  46,  t,  in  M.  H.  G.  e  was  dropped  after  r  and  I  in 


198 


HISTOKICAL  COMMENTARY   OIT   ACCIDEN'CE. 


[435- 


the  N.  sg.  and  all  through ;  after  m  and  n  only  in  the  N.    In  modern 
G.  no  -e  is  the  usage.     See  paradigm  of  'cogel,  p.  195. 

435.  1.  In  O.  H.  G.  were  only  four  neuter  yi-stems,  viz.,  8ra,  D^r ;  ouga,  9tuge ; 
herza^  §ers;  wanga^  SBangc.  In  M.  H.  G.  they  inclined  toward  the  strong  and  now  the 
first  three  have  joined  the  mixed  declension ;  wanga  has  become  weak  and  fern,;  namo, 
bcr  9?ame,  was  once  neuter.    Comp.  L.  nomen,  nominis. 

2.  Interesting  are  bie  93{ene  +  bee  and  bie  93irne  +  pear,  in  which  the  inflectional  n  has 
entered  the  stem.  Compare  the  older  J?e,  Mr,  This  entering  of  n  into  the  N.  of  mas- 
culines is  very  common  and  has  furnished  the  hulk  of  strong  nouns,  1,  class  sub  1  and 
4,  46,  e.  g.,  Dtiiifen,  ©atgen,  ^foflen,  Dioggen,  ©^aben  (but  notice  the  isolated  „e8  i^ 
©(i^abe,"  it  is  too  bad).  One  can  tell  these  by  comparing  them  with  their  Eng.  cog- 
nates +  ridge,  gallow(s),  post,  rye,  etc.,  which  show  no  n. 

3.  In  ber  §etbe  <  heidan  +  heathen  ;  (S^rifl  +  Christian  <  Jcristen  <  L.  christianus ; 
SHaBe  <  robe  and  raben  +  raven,  n  is  lost  as  if  it  had  been  regarded  an  inflectional  suffix 
and  the  nouns  became  weak. 

4.  In  bie  gerfe  <fersana,  Ags.  fyrsn ;  ^ette  <  ketene,  ehetina  +  Eng.  chain  through 
Romance  <  V.  L.  cadina,  L.  catena  ;  in  bie  ^ii(^e  <  Mchene,  kuchin  <  V.  L.  cudna,  L. 
coquina  +  Eng.  kitchen  ;  in  bie  9Kette  <  metten,  mettina  <  V.  L,  mattina,  L.  matut/ina 
(hora)  +  Eng.  matin,  the  n  has  also  been  lost  and  (the  nouns  became  weak. 


Comments  on  the  Adjective-Declension. 
436.     O.  H.  G.  paradigm  of  o-stems: 


Masc. 

Sg.  N.  BLiNT,  blint^r 

G.    BLINTES 

D.  blintemu 
A.  blintan 

Instr.   BLINTU 

PL  N.  blinte 
G.  blintero 
D.  blint^m,  -dn 
A.  blinte 


Fem. 

BLiNT,  blintiu,  -(i)u 
blintera,  -u 
blinteru,  -a 

BLINTA,  -e 

blinto 
blintero 
blint^m,  -^n 
blinto 


Neutet. 
BLiNT,  blintaz 

BLINTES 

blintemu 
BLINT,  blintaz 

BLINTU 

blintiu,  -(i)u 
blintero 
blint^m,  -^n 
blintiu,  -(i)u 


437.  The  adjective  was  once  declined  like  the  substantive,  when  both 
were  still  **  nouns."  In  the  Teutonic  languages  the  so-called  "  unin- 
flected  "  forms  are  stiU  the  noun  inflection,  because  *Uindoz  >  blind(t)  just 
as  *dagoz  >  tag.  The  strong  declension  is  the  pronominal  inflection,  which 
in  some  cases  coincided  with  the  substantive  declension.  These  cases 
and  the  uninflected  forms  are  put  in  small  capitals  in  the  paradigm. 


439]  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON  ACCIDENCE.  199 

1.  The  a<yective  pronotins  led  the  way  in  this  coaleBcence  of  the  two  inflections  into 
the  one  strong  one.    blint^r  is  only  S.  G.,  the  uninflected  alone  occurs  in  M.  and  L.  G. 

2.  The  double  forms  blindu,  blintiu  are  perhaps  due  to  jo-stems  (Paul),  blintiu  could 
give  M.  H.  G.  blinde.  The  M.  H.  G.  forms,  both  strong  and  weak,  differ  very  little 
from  the  O.  H.  G.    In  the  neuter  pi.  blindiu  lasted  long. 

3.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  vowel-stems  are  reduced  to  o-  and  Jo-stems. 

Thejo-stems  are  still  recognizable  by  the  umlaut  which  runs  throughout,  e.g.^  ^^on, 
bo^e,  trftge. 

4.  The  weak  declension  was  exactly  like  the  w-subst.  declension.  Now  the  sg.  A. 
fem.  and  neuter  are  like  the  sg.  N.  just  as  in  the  substantives. 

Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

438.  -er,  -e  jl  represent  O.  H.  G.  -4ro,  -oro,  -ist,  -dst.  The  6)-forms,  are 
not  frequent  in  O.  H.  G.  i  in  ir,  ist  produced  umlaut,  which  spread  in 
M.  H.  G.,  so  that  even  then  the  umlaut  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  an 
essential  part  of  comparison. 

They  were  declined  almost  exclusively  weak  at  first,  e  of  he^^ere  (N. 
sg.)  was  lost  just  like  the  e  of  'oogele,  see  p.  195. 

1.  It  is  generally  stated  that  -iro,  -oro  come  from  &n  I.  E.  suflBx  -jans,  but  how  has 
never  been  made  clear.  It  is  probable  that,  since  -oro  was  at  first  attached  only  to 
o-stems,  the  o  is  secondary  and  due  to  the  stem-suffix.  The  comparative-suffix  seems 
to  have  been  -is  and  to  this  -t-  was  added  for  the  superlative.  But  -t-  is  probably 
identical  with  the  ordinal-suflax. 

Irregular  Comparison. 

439.  fecjfer  <  O.  H.  G.  be:^pro,  Ags.  betera,  Beft  <  be^pst,  Ags. 
betst ;  me^r  <  O.  H.  G.  mero^  Go.  maiza,  meift  <  O.  H.  G.  meist, 
Go.  maists  ;  mint)er  <  O.  H.  G.  minniro,  M.  H.  G.  minre,  minteft 
represents  O.  H.  G.  minnist,  M.  H.  G.  minnest, 

1.  All  contain  the  regular  suffixes,  kffer  comes  perhaps  from  a  stem 
*b'ad.  ba§  is  the  regularly  developed  comparative  adverb.  Comp. 
M.  H.  G.  min,  me,  Ags.  min,  md.  r  disappeared  according  to  the  law  of 
finals.  Whether  me^r  is  related  to  L.  magis,  major,  is  doubtful,  minber 
has  excrescent  b.  The  O.  H.  G.  nn  shows  that  L.  minii-s  is  its  cognate, 
ntinbcj^  is  a  N.  H.  G.  superlative  <  tninber. 

2.  ©rjl  is  <  O.  H.  G.  irisfo,  comparative  ^riro.  G^e  is  a  modem  formation  for  the 
positive,  +  Eng.  ere,  erst.  Cefet  comes  from  a  stem  *lat,  from  which  Eng.  late,  later ; 
last  —  latest ;  also  +  to  let  =  "hinder."  Ia§,  tired.  '!ii^t<lezt,  lat{i)st,  just  as  Eng. 
last  <  latest.    See  Kluge.    gfir^  +  first  is  <  O.  H.  Q./uri  {dAyQxb),furiro^furi8to. 


200 


HISTORICAL   COMMEKTAEY   ON   ACCIDENCE. 


[440- 


Comments 

on 

the  Pronouns. 

440.     Personal  Pronouns. 

Sg.  N. 

M.  H.  G. 
I. 

ich 

Common  gender. 
II. 

du,  du 

III.  refl. 

G. 

r  min 

1  (mines,  -er) 

din 

sin 

diner 

siner 

D. 

mir 

dir 

(im) 

A. 

mich 

dich 

sich 

PL  N. 

wir 

ir 



G. 

unser 

iuwer 

(ir) 

D. 

uns 

iu 

(in) 

A. 

uns 
unsich 

( inch 
( iuwih 

sich 

8g.  N. 

III.  person  with  form  for  each  gender. 

er                                 siu 

e?    ^ 

G. 

sin,  es 

ir,  ire 

es,  sin 

D. 

im(e) 

ir,  ire 

im(e) 

A. 

in,  in  en 

0.  H.  G.  inan 

sie 

e^ 

PI  N.,A. 

si(e) 

si(e),  si 

siu 

G. 

ir 

(0. 

H.  G.  iro) 

D. 

in 

(0. 

H.  G.  im) 

1.  The  pronouns  of  common  gender  come  from  various  stems,  which  as  well  as  the 
Inflections  are  diflicult  to  analyze,  er,  fie,  e6  come  from  two  stems  \{<ei  —oi)  and 
f(fd.    For  e§  <  «|  +  Goth,  ita,  see  490,  2.    Compare  L.  is,  ea,  id. 

2.  The  pronouns  were  extended  by  two  endings,  -er  and  -en,  in  N.  H.  G. 
The  G.  sg.  metner,  etc.,  are  no  doubt  due  to  the  influence  of  the  strong 
adjective  declension  and  to  unfer,  euer  (G.  pi.).  The  same  endings  appear 
in  bercr  and  benen,  but  these  are  later,  since  both  mines  and  miner  appear 
in  M.  H.  G.  sporadically,  inch,  originally  A.,  spread  over  D.  like  the 
reflexive  "sich."  sin  crowded  out  es  (G.  masc.)  already  in  O.  H.  G.  and  es 
(neuter  G.)  has  general  force,  not  referring  to  a  single  object.  N.  H.  G. 
3&ro  is  probably  an  analogous  form  with  "dero"  before  a  title  and  not 


443J  HISTORICAL  COMMENTAEY   ON   ACCIDEN^CE.  201 

the  old  fem.  G.  sg.  or  pi.  iro  as  generally  stated,  ir  (G.  pi.)  was  still  the 
rule  in  the  16th  century  and  as  G.  sg.  still  in  the  17th.  beiner  was  estab- 
lished later  than  meiner  and  feiner,  which  were  the  rule  early  in  the  17th 
century. 

441.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

a.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  of  the  same  origin  as  the  genitives  metn,  bein,  feiit,  etc., 
of  the  personal  pronoun.  They  are  most  likely  not  derived  from  the  latter  as  is  gener- 
ally stated,  but  rather  the  reverse.  The  adjective  suffix  -in  <  in  seems  to  lie  in  them 
attached  to  the  primitive  stems  *ma,  Hwa^  *swa,  which  appear  in  all  Indo-European 
languages.    Comp.  L.  mevs^  tuus,  suus,  met,  tui,  mi. 

1.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  possessives  were  declined  strong  even  when  preceded 
by  the  definite  article.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  weak  declension  came  into  use. 
The  long  forms  in  -ig  sprang  up  late  in  the  16th  century. 

3.  S^r,  her,  their,  however,  is  derived  from  the  G.  of  the  personal  pro- 
noun of  the  third  person.  It  sprang  up  in  the  13th  century  and  was 
fully  established  in  the  15th. 

442.  The  Demonstrative  Pronoun. 

O.  H.  G.  Masc.  Fem.  Neat. 

Sg.  N.  de  (thie),  der  diu  da^ 

G.  des  dera,  -o  des 

D.  demu,  M.  H.  G.  dem(e)  deru,  M.  H.  G.  der(e)  demu 

A.  den  de,  dea,  dia  da^ 

In.  diu  diu 

PZ.  N.,  A.  de,  dea,  dia  deo,  dio  dei,  diu 

G.  dero 

D.  d^m 

a.  Sievers  assmnes  two  I.-E.  stems,  to,  tjo ;  Paul  only  one,  to,  explaining  i  as  due 
to  the  diphthongization  of  e  >  ea  >  ia.  de  without  r  is  the  older  ;  r  is  the  same  as  in 
wer,  er,  '^  L.  quis,  is.  to  is  treated  as  o  and  i  stem,  de  <  thai,  dei  is  probably  dual 
like  zwei.  O.  H.  G.  daz  <  G.  T.  thata,  in  which  final  t  is  a  particle.  The  Instr.  exists 
still  in  the  isolated  „t)eflo/'  +  the  In  "  the  more,"  <  desde  <  des-diu.    des  is  the  Gen. 


443. 

0 

.  H.  G. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Sg.  N.  dgse,  dgs§-r 

deisu,  diusiu 

diz,  dSzzi,  di^ 

G.  dgeses 

dgsera,  derra 

desses 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

dese  is  composed  like  a  strong  adjective  of  de  and  a  particle  sa.    In  the  G.  sg.  both 
elements  are  inflected,  generally  only  the  second,    di^  has  in  j  the  neuter  pronominal 


202  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY  ON  ACCIDENCE.  [444- 

suffix,  but  nothing  else  in  it  is  explained.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  forms  beginning  with  dir' 
prevailed,  always  short.  bie§  goes  back  to  O.  H.  G.  di^,  but  biefeg  first  appearb  as  late 
as  the  15th  century.    Hans  Sachs  still  spells  diz^  ditz. 

1.  jcn-er  seems  to  contain  the  same  suffix  -in  as  the  possessive  pronouns. 
Its  stem  is  limited  to  the  Teutonic  languages. 

The  origin  of  „^tXb"  +  self  is  dark. 

fol(^  +  such  is  compounded  of  swa,  so,  fo  and  lich,  like,  -Ud§. 

2.  The  pronominal  stem  hi,  which  appears  also  in  the  Eng.  pronoun  he, 
his,  him,  her,  is  hidden  in  ^eute  <•  Mudagu  (Instr.),  '^euer  <  Muja/)'Uy  |eint 
(now  dialectic)  <  M.  H.  G.  liinet  <  Mnaht,  +  to-night.  It  occurs  also 
in  the  adverbs  lin,  l^er,  +  hi-ther.    Compare  L.  hir-c,  Jiacr-c,  ho-c. 

444.     Interrogative  Pronouns. 


O.  H.  G.    Masc.  and  Fern. 

N.  huer 

G.           hues 

Neuter. 

hna^ 

M.  H.  Q. 

wer,  wa^ 

wes 

D.           huemu 

wem(e) 

A.  huen(aii) 
Instr. 

huin,  hiu 

wen,  wa^ 
win 

a.  From  the  stem  -ko  with  k'^  that  was  labialized  in  Latin  and  the  Teutonic  languages. 
Compare  L.  guis—guid,  guod,  which  perhaps  requires  another  I.  E.  stem  ki.  A.  huenan 
is  only  O.  H.  G.  and  the  ending  is  taken  from  the  adjective  declension. 

1.  Wie  <  O,  H.  Gt.  wiu,  huiu,  +  why,  how,  comes  from  this  stem,  G.  T. 
hwa-,  I.  E.  ho-,  +  Go.  hwaiwa,  Age.  M.  But  the  phonetic  relation  be- 
tween tuiCf  why  and  how  is  not  yet  cleared  up. 

Eng,  whom  is  really  the  D.  +  went,  but  served  as  D.  and  A  very 
early. 

3.  »cld^  <  O.  H.  G.  hu'dih,  welich,  +  which  <  Ags.  h^Dplc,  lit.  *'how 
or  what  like." 

3.  webcr  +  whether,  now  only  conjunction,  is  still  a  pronoun  in  the 
16tli  century.  Formed,  with  the  comparative  suffix  -ber  <  thar  <  tero, 
from  ko-  the  interrogative  stem.     Comp.  Gr.  iiorepog,  archaic  form. 

445.    Indefinite  Pronouns. 

1.  jeber/  jemanb,  ntemanb  contain  the  prefix  io,  ie,  jc,  +  ever,  io  gave  the 
original  interrogative  weder  indefinite  force,  jeber  <  ieweder  <  ioweder. 
Like  "  either,"  it  meant  "one  of  two,"  "  which  ever  you  please."    The  end- 


446] 


HISTORICAL  COMMETSTARY   OK  ACCIDEIJCE. 


203 


ing  -er  was  confounded  with  the  adjective-endings  -er,  -c,  -e3  and  the 
full  forms  jeberer/  jebere,  jcbereS  are  preserved,  though  rare,  down  to  the 
17th  century. 

jemanb  is  compounded  of  ie — man,  niemanb  of  ni — ie — man.  As  to  b, 
see  491,  2. 

ieglid^  <  iegelih  <  io — gil%h,  *'  ever  (the)  like." 

2.  jebweber  <  ie — deweder,  "■  any  one  of  two,"  It  contains  an  element 
de,  which  is  also  in  ctlic^,  etwa^.  Its  origin  is  unknown,  fein  <  dechein. 
This  also  contains  an  obscure  element  dech-. 

3.  anber  +  other  is  a  comparative  like  tt)eber»  <  O.  H.  G.  andar  <  *aD 
— tero. 


Comments  on  the  Conjugation. 

446. 

Strong  Verbs. 

O.  H.  G. 

M.  H.  G. 

Pres.  ind. 

Svbj. 

Sg.  1.  nimu 

neme 

nime 

neme 

2.  nimis(t) 

nemes 

nimest 

nemest 

3.  nimit 

neme 

nimet 

nem© 

PL  1.  nemam(^s) 

nem^m(es) 

nemen 

nemen 

2.  nemat,  et 

nem^t 

nemet 

nemet 

3.  uemant 

nemen 

nement 

nemen 

Pret.  ind. 

Subj. 

Sg.  1.  nam 

ndmi 

nam 

nsRme 

2.  nami 

ndmis 

nseme 

nsemest 

3.  nam 

ndmi 

nam 

nseme 

PL  1.  namum(es) 

namim(es) 

ndmen 

nsemen 

2.  namut 

ndmit 

namet 

nsemet 

3.  namun 

ndmin 

ndmen 

ngemen 

Imp. 

2.  sg,  niTTi 

Inf.  neman 

nim 

nemen 

1.  pL  nemam(^s) 

Ger.  ze  nemanne 

nemen 

ze  nemenne 

2.  pL  nemat 

Pres.  part,  nemanti 

nemet 

nemende 

Past  part,  ginoman 

genomen 

204 


HISTORICAL   COMMEi^TARY   ON   ACCIDEi^CE. 


[447- 


447 

Weak  Verbs. 

0.  H.  G. 

M. 

H,G. 

Imp.  2.  sg. 

neri 

salbo 

ner 

salbe 

Pret. 

nerita 

salbdta,  dahta 

nerte 

salbete 

Inf. 

neren 

salb6n 

uern 

salben 

Part. 

nerenti 

salbonti 

nernde 

salbende 

ginerit 

gisalbot 

genert 

gesalbet 

a.  Grimm  called  a  verb  " strong"  because  it  would  form  its  preterit  of  its  own  re- 
sources, without  the  aid  of  composition.  We  retain  the  terms  "  strong  "  and  "  weak  " 
simply  because  they  are  generally  used. 

448.  Tenses. 

There  are  only  two  simple  tenses  left  in  the  Germanic  languages,  viz., 
the  present  and  the  "  preterit"  which  corresponds  in  form  to  the  "per- 
fect" of  the  other  I.  E.  languages.  What  we  call  "the  subjunctive"  is 
in  form  the  optative,  the  suffix  for  which  was  ie — i,  in  an  <?-verb  of  course 
-oL     Compare  the  Greek  (pepot—Go.  nimai. 

449.  Personal  suffixes.  There  were  two  classes.  The  prima- 
ry were  added  to  the  present  and  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
secondary  to  the  preterit  and  the  optative  mood.  The  O.  H. 
G.  1.  pi.  in  -mes  is  quite  a  mystery.  The  2.  p.  sg.  present  in 
st,  prevailing  in  O.  H.  G.,  bas  sprung  from  analogy  with 
nimis — tii  and  the  pret.-present  verbs,  e.g.,  canst,  '^bistu" 
occurs  in  the  very  oldest  sources. 

1.  The  1.  p.  sg.  pres.  is  either  u  <  o  in  nearly  all  verbs  or  m  <  mi  in  the 
few  w2?-verbs,  e.g.,  nimu  but  tuom.  Peculiar  is  that  the  2.  p.  pret.  subj.  has 
entered  tlie  pret.  ind.  The  regular  ending  was  -t,  as  still  found  in  Gothic 
and  in  the  pret.-pres.  verbs,  e.g..  Go.  namt,  G.  bil  tt)Ut,  folt  (now  archaic). 

An-e  in  the  1.  and  3.  p.  sg.  pret.  and  in  the  2.  p.  sg.  imper.,  due  to  analogy,  sprang  up 
in  late  M.  H.  G.,  spread  in  early  N.H.  G.,  became  rare  in  18th  century,  and  is  now  archaic. 

2.  These  suffixes  were  either  attached  to  the  bare  stem  as  in  the  mz-verbs 
or  by  means  of  a  connecting  vowel  generally  called  '*  thematic  vowel,"  which 
was  I.  E.  o — e  for  all  strong  verbs,  and  in  O.  H.  G.  i,  e  or  6  for  weak  verbs. 


450.     Imperative.     The  2.  p.  sg.  has  the  syncopated  form  of  short- 
stemmed  verbs  which  once  ended  in  -c  :    neme  >   nimi  >  nim.       In 


463]  HISTORICAL  COMMEKTARY   OH   ACCIDENCE.  205 

weak  verbs  the  ending  is  amalgamated  with  the  connecting  vowel  : 
neri,  salbo.  neri  should  become  ner,  but  there  was  levelling  in  favor  of 
the  long-stemmed  verb.     The  1.  p.  pi.  is  exhortative.     It  is  indicative. 

451.  Infinitive.  This  is  a  verbal  noun  ending  in  -no-.  Perhaps  an 
isolated  accusative. 

452.  Gerundive.  It  is  confounded  with  the  infinitive  with  which  it 
has  originally  nothing  to  do.  Suffix  is  -^j-  ;  hence  the  double  n.  It 
was  inflected  like  any  noun.  Since  in  modern  German  it  has  taken  a 
construction  similar  to  the  Gerundive  of  Latin  grammar,  we  have  called 
it  "  Gerundive."  The  form  with  ~d  occurs,  according  to  Weinhold,  as 
early  as  the  12th  century  in  Alemanic,  zi  tuonrte  and  zi  tuonde  were  con- 
founded. In  the  latter  form  lies  the  modern  construction,  as  in  eine  ju 
kad)tentte  SJorfc^rift. 

453.  Pakticiples.  The  suflSx  of  the  present  participle  was  -nt,  a 
consonant  stem,  but  afterwards  a  jo-,  jd-siem,  hence  nemanti.  For  the 
nouns  Srcunbf  Seinb,  |)eilanb,  see  505. 

1.  The  passive  participles  are  two  verbal  adjectives  formed  by  means 
of  -to-  and  -no-  (both  accented)  from  the  verb-stems,  not  from  the 
tense-stems.  They  were  at  first  not  limited,  -to-  to  weak  verbs  and 
-no-  to  the  strong.  Compare  miss-  (the  modern  prefix  mip-  +  Eng. 
mis-)  <  misto  <  *mith — to  the  .weak  stem  of  the  verb  nteiben,  mieb, 
gemieben,  to  avoid :  0en)i§  <  gawiss  <  *-wiUa  <  ^widto,  from  the  stem 
of  twcip,  wiffen;  alt  +  old  <  al — to-  from  the  strong  verb  (Go.)  alan  +  L. 
alere,  to  nourish.  Besides  in  these  and  other  isolated  forms  -to-  occurs 
in  the  past  part,  of  the  pret.-pres.  verbs  and  in  a  class  that  had  no  con- 
necting vowel,  e.g.,  geBrac^t,  gebad^t,  etc.,  see  454, 3.  Compare  Gr.  -t6q,  L. 
^tus.  -no  is  rare  in  non-Germanic  languages ;  compare  L.  dignus,  'plenus 
+  full. 

3.  The  prefix  ge-.  It  is  the  inseparable  prefix  ge-  and  belonged  at  first 
only  to  the  participle  of  verbs  compounded  with  it.  But  in  simple  verbs 
it  could  give  the  present  the  force  of  the  future,  it  would  emphasize  the 
preterit  or  give  it  the  force  of  the  pluperfect  and  give  the  infinitive  de- 
pendent upon  a  modal  auxiliary  the  force  of  the  perfect  inf.  Thus  also 
n  the  participle  it  emphasized  the  completion  of  an  act.  Some  parti- 
ciples very  rarely  took  ge-  in  M.  H.  G.,  e.  g.,  komen,  worden,  funden, 
Id^en,  fre^^en,  hei^en.  „®nabe  funben"  is  common  in  the  Bible.  The 
Patriarch  in  Lessing's  Nathan  uses  it.    Compare  Eng.  yclad,  yclept. 


806  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY  OK  ACCIDENCE.  [454- 

454.  Weak  Veebs. 

1.  The  connecting  vowels  are  i(j),  S,  0  in  O.  H.  G.  The  original  type  of  connecting 
vowel  is  supposed  to  have  been  ojo — ejo,  but  the  reduction  to  6  (Go.  ai)  and  6  is  by  no 
means  clear.  The  large  majority  have  i(j)  <  *^'o,  but  a  not  small  number  both  of  orig- 
inally strong  and  weak  verbs  have  none.  The  preterit  is  formed  by  the  suffix  -ia,  now 
-te.  Its  origin  is  by  no  means  settled.  Paul  reconstructs  two  suffixes,  viz.,  -dho 
and  -ta.  The  Old  Saxon  forms  sagda,  hadda,  lidda  with  corresponding  participles  can 
only  come  from  Vdhd,  from  which  is  also  t^un  +  to  do.  The  majority  of  verbs  take 
I.  E.  -ta,>  tha  >da>ta  according  to  Verner's  Law.    See  411. 

3.  We  distinguish  originally  three  classes  :  1,  no  connecting  vowel  in 
the  preterit ;  2,  connecting  vowel  and  short  stem  ;  3,  connecting  vowel 
and  long  stem. 

3.  There  was  very  early  (in  0.  H.  G.)  a  levelling  between  the  2.  and  3. 
classes,  because  in  short-stemmed  verbs,  in  which  no  syncope  could  take 
place,  j(i)  caused  doubling  of  the  final  consonant.  This  made  them  appear 
like  long-stemmed  ones.  The  first  class  has  now  been  reduced  to  the 
three  verbs  benfen,  biinfcn,  and  kingen,  see  119,  2.  Compare  O.  H.  G. 
denlcen,  ddhta,  giddkt ;  dunken,  dHhta,  gidHht ;  bringen,  hrdhta,  gibrdht 
Long  a  <  a  nasalized  <  an.  ^x<xvi^iXi,  furc^ten,  fu(^en,  tt)ir!en  (<  wurfen) 
belonged  here  also.  Eng.  buy,  bought,  bought ;  work,  wrought,  wrought 
show  still  their  origin  in  the  gh  before  t.  SBrtngen  is  of  course  a  strong  verb 
and  so  are  brtlkan  (II.),  suochen  (VI.)  as  their  ablaut  shows.  SBeginnen  be- 
longed here  perhaps  too,  since  we  find  still  in  dialect  kgonnte  (F.  3176). 
That  these  verbs  never  had  any  connecting  vowel  is  shown  :  1,  by  the 
ehange  of  the  guttural  stop  >  guttural  spirant  which  takes  place  only 
directly  before  t  ;  2,  by  the  umlaut  in  the  pret.  subj.  For  the  M.  H.  G. 
forms  are  denken,  ddhte — dcehte,  geddht ;  dunken,  dilhte — diulite,  geduht ; 
bringen,  brdhte — brcehte,  {ge)brdht.  hmtm,  biinftc,  gebiinft  begins  as  early 
as  M.  H.  G.  The  present  mir  bciuc^t  is  a  N.  H.  G.  formation  from  the 
preterit.  That  furc^ten  once  belonged  here  is  shown  by  the  archaic 
form  „fur(^te,"  e.g.,  1)tx  xoad^xt  ^B^^rodU  fox^V  ft(^  nit  (U.).  Lessing  has 
wfurc^te,"  <  O.  H.  G.  furhten  {mi/rhten),  for{a)hta,  gifor{a)ht  (the  a  is  a 
secondary  development). 

455.  The  verbs  in  119, 1,  are  the  only  verbs  that  still  show 
the  difference  between  the  long  and  short-stemmed  of  the  i(j)- 
class.  They  formed  their  principal  parts  in  O.  H.  G. :  brennen, 
branta,  gibrennit — gibranter  ;  nennen,  nanta,  ginennit — ginanter. 
According  to  syncope  %rannita,  *g'ibranniter  had  to  become 
branta,  gibranter.     The  i  that  produced  umlaut  in  brennen 


457]  HISTORICAL   COMMEl^TART  ON  ACCIDENCE.  207 

gibrennit  had  disappeared  from  hrannita,  gibranniter  and 
therefore  there  is  no  umlaut  in  brannte,  geBrannt.  The  parti- 
ciple with  umlaut  was  leveUed  away. 

1.  The  umlaut  in  the  modern  pret.  subj.  is  due  to  analogy  with  5ra(|tCr 
biirftc,  etc.  It  is  a  Middle  German  feature.  Even  preterits  indicative 
with  e  of  rennen,  brennen,  nennen  occur  now  and  then  in  the  classics.  The 
levelling  into  fenben,  fenbetc,  gefenbet;  wenben,  tuenbete,  gewenbet  is  not  uncom- 
mon. Schiller  has  ♦  .  .  bte  ©renje,  tt)o  er  ba^  »on  ben  (£c^t»eben  erokrtc 
e^am  krennte. 

3.  All  other  differences  were  levelled  away,  e.g.,  M.  H.  G.  hce,ren,  hdrte, 
geho&ret — gehort,  becomes  loren,  prte^  gelort;  furc^ten,  fitrc^tete,  gcfitrc^tet ; 
fprengen,  fprengte,  gefprengt;  fiillen,  fiittte,  gefiiEt;  beef  en,  becfte,  gcbetft. 

3.  A  few  isolated  participles  are  left,  such  as  gej^alt  (ungeflalt),  Qetrojl 
(adverb),  and  others. 

Strong  Verbs. 

456.  The  Present. 

1.  The  interchanges  of  c — i ;  ie — eu;  no  umlaut— umlaut  in  the  present  and  the  um- 
laut in  the  pret.  subj.  are  accounted  for  in  the  phonology.  See  403.  See  also  under 
each  class  of  verbs. 

2.  The  first  p.  sg.  has  followed  the  analogy  of  the  forms  that  have  e 
and  of  the  verbs  of  VI.  which  had  of  course  no  umlaut  in  1.  p.  sg.,  e.g., 
O.  H.  G.  faru,  ferist,  ferit.  The  contrast  is  now  for  all  classes  between 
2.  and  3.  pers.  sg.  with  i,  a,  etc:  bu  fci'^rj^,  er  fa^rt,  bu  gtbjl,  er' gttt  and 
all  the  other  forms  with  a  and  e :  fa^rettf  t(^  fa^re,  wir  fa^ren,  i^r  fa'^rt,  fte 
fasten;  geten,  ic^  gek,  wir  gekn,  i^r  gebet,  jle  geBen.  Formerly  the  contrast 
was  between  the  whole  pres.  sg.  and  the  whole  pi.  for  CI.  III.,  IV.,  V. 
See  paradigm,  p.  203. 

457.  Of  the  numerous  formations  of  the  present-stem  the  following 
\Te  still  to  be  recognized  by  certain  peculiarities  : 

1.  I.  E.  jo—je,  L.  capio,  fugio,  German  Htten  V.  <  Udjan  <  ^bedjan 
according  to  the  interchange  of  e — i,  but  the  participle  gekten  <  hedan-. 
Exactly  like  this  ft^en  V.,  Uegen  V.,  but  gefeffen,  getegen.  Also  ^efcen  VI.  and 
fd^rooren  Vi.,  e.g.,  fc^woren  <  »wem  <  swerien  <  swarjan,  swor,  swaran-. 
Hence  i,  or  in  the  last  two,  a  umlaut  through  the  whole  present.  This 
was  once  a  large  group.  Here  belonged  for  instance  the  class  benfcn, 
ba^te^  sec  454,  3,  +  Go.  thankjan. 

2.  The  suffix  -n  {-nw,  nj),  which  also  entered  the  pret.  if  it  was 
within  the  root,     fragen  <  *frehnan,  Ags.  frignan,  but  already  weak  in 


208  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   Old    ACCIDENCE.  [458- 

O.  H.  G.  crtDct^ncn  <  an  O.  H.  G.  {giy-wahhinnen,  nn  <  nj.  beginnen, 
rinnen  and  others  have  nw.  Go.  standan,  German  flunb,  |!anb — geflanben; 
(Qf^en),  gieng,  gegangen;  fangen^  etc.    Compare  L.  tundo,  tutudi. 

3.  Reduplication,  corresponding  to  Gr.  ti'&ijjui  and  nirrTO),  is  preserved 
in  UUn  <  biben,  to  quake,  and  jittern,  to  tremble,  both  weak  (Kluge). 

4.  sk,  corresponding  to  L.  -sco,  in  bref(|en,  forfc^en,  tt)iittf(|en,  mafc^en  (see 
Kluge's  Diet,  for  these  words). 

458.     The  Preterit. 

1.  Reduplication.  There  are  traces  of  ablaut  without  reduplication,  but  generally  the 
two  occurred  together.  In  Gothic  are  still  verbs  which  have  both.  The  reduplication 
consisted  in  the  repetiton  of  the  initial  consonant  +  e  or  if  beginning  with  a  vowel  by 
prefixing  'e,  e.  g..  Go.  haldan,  haihcdd  (ai  =  6  in  Gtothic),  aukan,  aiauk.  O.  H.  G.  has 
only  one  clear  example,  viz.,  tela,  i^  t^at.  Compare  L.  fatto  —fefeUi,  tango  —  tetigi. 
How  the  reduplicating  syllable  was  lost,  how  it  coalesced  with  the  stem  is  not  yet 
clear.  Our  VII.  class  includes  the  reduplicating  verbs,  that  is,  those  still  reduplicat- 
ing in  Gothic,  though  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Gothic  has  preserved  the  original 
method  of  reduplication. 

2.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  stem-vowel  of  the  reduplicated  preterit  appears  as  e 
and  eo,  e.  g. ,  rdtan  ret^  fdhan  feng  and  feng  (fahan  <  fanlian).  e  by 
diphthongization  >  ea  >  ia  >  ie ;  eo  >  io  >  ie,  so  that  already  in  M. 
H.  G.  we  have  ie  as  the  regular  vowel  of  the  preterit.  Examples; 
std^an  —  steo^,  stio^,  M.  H.  G.  stie^ — gisto^an ;  hloufan  —  hleof,  hliof^ 
M.  H.  G.  Uef—giJiloufan^  N.  H.  G.  laufen — lief — gelaufen  ;  fallan — fet 
>  feed  >  jial>fiel  (M.  H.  Q.)—gifollan,  N.  H.  G.  faKen  — ^e(— gefatten; 
hei^^an  —  he^,  heaf,  hia^,  M.  H.  G.  hie^—giTiei^^an,  N.  H.  G.  l^ei^en — l^iep 
—  ge'^ei§en. 

3.  However  the  vowel  appearing  in  the  pret.  may  have  arisen,  it  is  not  ablaut.  It 
never  appears  in  derivatives  as  all  the  ablaut  vowels  do.  Unter^^teb  is  only  a  seeming 
exception,  since  it  stands  for  the  older  „Unterf(^eib,"  which  was  crowded  out,  because 
the  verb  went  over  into  the  I.  CI. 


The  Ablaut-series  and  the  Verb-classeSo 

459.  No  one  verb  shows  all  the  four  stages  of  ablaut  as  they  have 
been  determined.  See  394.  The  first  five  classes  belong  to  the  origi 
nal  I.  E.  e — o  series,  the  VI.  'is  the  I.  E.  a  —  a,  G.  T.  a  —  o  series.  To 
the  latter  series  belong  also  the  reduplicating  verbs  which  have  in  the 
Btem  a  +  liquid  +  cons,  (halteu) ;  ai  (ei) ;  and  au,  o. 


460]  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   ON   ACCIDENCE.  209 

In  the  first  group  e  corresponds  to  G.  T.  e,  i ;  o  to  G.  T.  a  in  tlie  pret 
Eg.,  for  in  I.  and  II.  we  must  count  i  and  u  as  consonants.  The  fi  ve 
classes  can  be  grouped  as  follows  : 

1.  a.  I.,  II.:  i  and  u  as  consonants  in  the  pres.  and  pret.  sg*.;  a* 
vowels  in  the  pret.  pi.  and  part.,  viz., 

e  ~  i  +  cons.         a  -  i  +  cons.         i  +  cons, 
e  -  u  +  cons.        a  -  u  +  cons.        u  +  cons. 
The  stem  ends  in  i  or  u  +  cons. 

b.  III.,  IV.,  V.  have  in  the  present  e  -  i  +  liquid  or  nasal  +  cons.  (HI.); 
e  +  liquid  or  nasal  (IV.),  or  e  +  cons.  (V.).  In  the  pret.  sg.  they  have  a. 
The  stem  ends  in  a  liquid  or  nasal  +  cons.  (III.) ;  in  a  single  liquid  oi- 
nasal  (IV.)  ;  in  a  single  cons,  not  liquid  or  nasal  (V.). 

2.  I.,  II.,  III.  have-  the  weakest  stages  of  ablaut  in  the  pret.  pi.  and 
participle ;  IV.  in  the  part,  only ;  V.  in  neither.  IV.  and  V.  have  a  long 
vowel  in  the  pret.  pi.,  that  is  very  difficult  to  account  for.  O.  H.  G.  a 
corresponds  to  G.  T.  e,  the  length  of  which  may  be  due  to  compensation, 
^ff->  *gegbum  >  gebum.     See  458,  1. 

3.  A  third  grouping  is  possible  according  to  the  quality  of  the  vowel, 
viz.,  I.  to  V.  run  in  a  system  of  unrounded  vowels,  VI.  runs  in  a  system 
of  rounded. 

a.  ti  (o)  in  n.  is  either  consonant  in  the  accented  stage  (pres.  and  pret.  sg.)  or  vowel 
In  the  unaccented  stage  (pret.  pi.  and  past  part.),  u  before  r,  1,  m,  n  in  the  unaccented 
stage  is  also  due  to  their  double  nature,  according  to  which  they  serve  as  vowels  or  as 
consonants.  Nasalis  and  lAquida  sonans  (Brugman)  are  represented  in  all  the  Teu- 
tonic dialects  by  ur,  ul,  um,  un,  a  characteristic  of  the  whole  group. 

4.  VI.  stands  alone  and  contains  rounded  vowels.  Its  a  cannot  have 
been  originally  the  same  as  the  a  of  the  other  series.  It  was  probably 
more  o  than  a. 

Levelling  in  the  Preterit. 

460.  Tracing  the  classes  from  O.  H.  G.  to  N.  H.  G.  we  have  to  notice 
one  great  levelling  in  all  the  classes,  viz.,  of  sg.  and  pi.  pret.  This  was 
started  by  VI.  and  VII.,  which  had  sg.  and  pi.  alike.  In  IV.  and  V,  the 
difference  was  only  one  of  quantity.  The  sg.  was  short  and  the  pi.  wag 
long.     The  sg.  had  to  take  a  long  vowel  according  to  488,  2. 

1.  In  CL II.  G.  T.  au  >  ao  >  6  before  dentals,  before  1,  r,  h,  and  finally 


no 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY  OK  ACCIDEl^CE. 


[461- 


There  were  therefore  already  o's  in  the  pret.  sg.  The  levelling  was  in 
favor  of  o,  but  of  6  before  certain  consonants  (ff,  c^,  f,  b  —  t).  o  was  already 
in  the  past  part.  <  ii.  Only  I.  and  III.  are  left.  But  in  1. 1  >  ei  accord- 
ing to  488,  5.  The  pres.  and  pret.  had  to  become  alike.  The  principle  of 
ablaut  was  thus  interfered  with  in  I.,  and  the  levelling  in  the  pret.  was 
in  favor  of  the  pi.  and  part.,  viz.,  i  or  ie  according  to  the  following  con- 
sonants. III.  is  the  only  class  in  which  the  levelling  was  in  favor  of  the 
pret.  sg.  Before  nasal  +  cons,  u  stood  in  the  pi.  and  part.  A  levelling 
in  favor  of  the  pi.  was  therefore  not  likely.  In  IV.  and  V. ,  where  such  a 
levelling  occurred,  the  pi.  and  part,  had  different  vowels.  Before  1,  r,  + 
cons.,  to  be  sure,  there  was  u  in  the  pi.,  o  in  the  part,,  but  u  —  o  stood 
in  no  ablaut-relation.  But  this  levelling  was  the  latest  of  all  and  we 
find  none  in  S.  G.  dialects  at  the  present  day.  In  the  written-langnage 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  it  is  rather  rare ;  in  the  18th  it  is  the  rule 
with  not  a  few  exceptions.  SSerben*  toaxh — luurbe,  get»orben  is  the  only 
verb  of  III.  in  which  the  pi.  -vowel  stands  by  the  side  of  the  sg.  But  this 
verb  stands  isolated  from  the  rest  as  an  auxiliary  verb.  The  pret.-pres. 
verbs  have  not  suffered  levelling  except  fotten(see  471, 2),  but  these  have 
stood  in  an  isolated  position  toward  all  the  other  strong  verbs  from  pre- 
historic times. 

461.  We  give  a  few  examples  of  the  classes  in  their  earlier  stages.  Space  will  not  per- 
mit to  trace  each  verb  of  each  class.  It  would  be  easy  to  show  what  verbs  have  died 
out,  what  verbs  have  become  weak,  and  what  weak  or  foreign  verbs  have  become 
strong.  The  stock  of  verbs  belonging  to  each  class  varies  with  every  period;  in  fact, 
it  is  ever  varying.  Compare,  e.g.^  iog,  iug,  frag,  ftug  VI.  (see  129),  and  the  large  num- 
ber of  doubtful  ones  in  VIII. 


462.    LCI.  O.  (M.)H.  a.   1  ei,  ^ 


grifan 
greifen 

zihan 

snidan 

fdjneiten 


greif 


sneit 


grifum 
griffen 

zigum 

snitum 
fc^nttten 


-grifan 
gegriffen 

-zigan 

-snitan 
gef^nittcn 


1.  The  interchange  of  h— g,  d— t  according  to  Verner's  Law,  see  416. 
i  >  ei  according  to  488,  5.  N.  H.  G.  i  in  the  whole  pret.  by  levelling, 
ei  >  e  before  h,  r,  w.  i  represents  both  the  medium  stage  G.  T.  ei  and 
the  weak  stage  i.    i  is  the  zero  stage. 


464] 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY  ON    ACCIDENCE. 


211 


463. 


.     II.  0.  H. 

G.  iu  —  io 

ou,  6 

u 

triofan 

trouf 

trufiim 

-trofan 

triefen 

troff 

troffen 

getroffen 

kiosan 

k6s 

kurum 

-koran 

fiefen,  fiiren 

foc,  for 

(er)foren 

erioren 

siodan 

s6t 

sutum 

-sotan 

fteben 

fott 

fotteit 

gefotten 

sufan 

souf 

sufum 

-sofan 

faufen 

foff 

foffen 

gefoffen 

1.  The  interchange  of  iu  —  io  according  to  406;  iu  in  the  pres.  sg. 
triufu,  triufist,  triufit,  but  pi.  triofames,  etc.,  inf.  triofan.  For  a  period 
this  iu,  having  passed  >  ii,  became  eu  by  diphthongization.  These  forms 
are  now  archaic,  ie  prevailing  through  the  whole  present,  see  124. 
M.  H.  G.  io  >  ie.  G.  T.  au  >  ou,  but  >  ao  >  6  before  dentals,  1,  r,  h 
and  finally.  The  interchange  of  s  —  r,  d  —  t  according  to  Verner's  Law, 
but  levelled,  as  in  f(^nett>en  I.,  in  favor  of  t,  in  the  whole  preterit.  In 
M.  H.  G.  kiesen,  kos,  korn,  gekoren  for  a  while,  but  later,  lu\tn,  U^, 
gefofen;  fiefen,  for,  geforen;  now  fiiren,  for,  geforen.    See  132. 

2.  In  this  series  all  the  four  grades  of  ablaut  are  represented,  ou 
strong  ;  io,  iu  medium ;  u  the  weak  ;  u  zero,  u  >  au  regularly,  u  ap 
peared  in  verbs  that  had  the  accent  on  the  suffix.     Compare  457. 


464.    III.  CI.  O.  (M.)  H.  G.    e— i  a 

I,  a,  u  before  nasal  +  cons.;  e  —  i,  u  —  o  before  r,  1  f-  cons. 


U 


u— 5 


swimman 

swam 

.  swummum 

-swuniTnan 

fc^mimmen 

fd^tvcintm 

f^ttjammen 

gefc^wommen 

fintan 

fant 

funtum 

-funtan 

flnfeen 

fant) 

fanten 

gefunben 

helfan 

half 

TmlfnTYi 

-holfan 

^effen 

^alf 

^alfen 

ge^olfen 

1.  This  is  in  N.  H.  G.  the  most  primitive  series,    ftnben,  fanb,  gefunben  is 
already  the  G.  T.  series.     In  the  second  group  (see  125,  2)  the  secondary 


212 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY  OK  ACCIDEKCE. 


[465^ 


transition  of  u  >  o  is  a  M.  G.  feature.  It  takes  place  before  nn  and  mm. 
The  older  transition  from  u  >  o  before  1,  r  +  cons,  is  already  O.  H.  G. 
See  405. 


2.  The  interchange  of  e 
IV.,  V.  alike. 


i  is  regidar  (see  403).    It  appears  in  III., 


3.  The  double  preterit  subjunctive  (see  125)  is  due  to  the  levelling  of 
the  indicative.  The  subjunctive  was  regularly  formed  with  the  vowel  of 
the  pi.  and  umlaut  of  the  same.  Now  when  the  vowel  of  the  sg.  spread 
over  the  pi.  it  is  natural  a  new  subjunctive  should  be  formed  also  by  um- 
laut: fanbe,  Mrge.  Wherever  the  new  pret.  subj.  in  a  did  not  approach 
too  closely  to,  or  coincide  with,  the  present  ind.,  it  prevailed  as  in  the 
first  division:  ftnbe  —  foinbe,  binbe  —  banbe,  gelinge  —  gelange.  Where  such 
a  coincidence  was  the  case,  the  old  subjunctive  is  still  in  use  and  prefer- 
able as  in  the  third  division:  berge  —  (Mrge)  Burge,  jlerk  —  jlurbe,  mxbt  — 
romU,  see  126.  33efe|len  and  empfeflen  of  IV.  belong  here  since  in  M.  H.  G. 
they  were  bevelhen,  enpfelhen,  containing  I  +  cons,  ftc^len  IV  <  stein  has 
followed  the  analogy  of  III.,  3,  on  account  of  jla^Ie,  the  regular  subj.  and 
fte^Ie  the  pres.  ind.  The  2.  division  has  o  for  older  li  just  as  it  has  o  for 
u  :  gewiinne  >  getx>onne,  but  the  new  ones  in  a  are  quite  common  except  of 
rinnen,  on  account  of  rcnnen. 

4.  e  —  i  is  the  medium  stage,  a  the  strong ;  the  weak  and  zero  appear 
as  u  —  o. 


465.     IV.  CI.  O.  (M.)  H.  G.    e— i 


stelan 

koman,  queman 
fommen 


stal 

quam 
lam 


stdlum 
fta^len 

quamum 
famen 


-stolan 
gefto^Ien 

-koman 
ge!ommen 


1.  Here  is  again  interchange  of  e  —  1. 
regularly. 


a  prevailed  in  the  pret.     u  >  o 


2.  Queman  > koman  according  to  489, 1.  It  is  possible  that  "koman  " 
is  the  weak  grade  (see  471,  2).  jled}en  belonged  originally  to  V.  ;  it  has 
no  liquid.  Before  d)  and  ff  the  vowel  is  short,  except  in  the  pret.  of 
course :  ftl^tn,  jlac^,  aef^o^en* 


4691 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON   ACCIDENCE. 


213 


466.    V.  CI.  O.  H.  G.   e 


geban 
gektt 

gab 
gab 

gabum 
QaUn 

-geban 
gegeben 

ezzan 
effen 

dzum 
agen 

-e^jan 
(ge)geffen 

bitten 
Mtten 

bat 

bdtum 
kten 

-betan 
gefeeten 

wesan 

was 

wdrum 

-wesan 

(feirt) 

war 

njaren 

aenjefen 

1.  In  e  the  three  lowest  grades  are  represented,  there  was  no  liquid  or 
nasal  to  represent  the  3.  and  4.  grades,  a  is  the  strong  stage.  The  origin 
of  a  is  not  certain,  a^  is  perhaps  from'ea^,  'e  being  the  reduplicating  syl- 
lable. For  bitten,  see  457,  1.  In  the  part.  t)ie  interchange  of  s  —  r  was 
levelled  away  after  the  inf.  as  early  as  O.  H.  G.;  in  the  pret.  with  the 
levelling  of  the  vowels.  9Ba<5  is  archaic  in  Feuchtersleben's  :  <Bo  (if) 
bir  9efd)enft  etn  ^nof^letn  wa<$.  Interchange  of  e  —  i  as  usual  and  quantity 
of  e  depends  upon  the  following  consonants. 


467.    VI.  CI.  O.H.  a  a— e 


faran 
fa^ven 

heffen 
M.  H.  G.  heben 


fuor 

fu|r 

huob 
huop 


uo,  6 

fuorum 
fu^ren 

huobum 
huobum 

^o6en,  ^uUn 


uo,  6  { 

-faran 
gefa^ren 

-haban 
-baben 

ge^oBen 
(er)laBen 


1.  This  series  has  only  two  grades,  strong  and  weak-medium,  see  400. 
G.  T.  6>  uo>  ti.    For  e  in  heffen,  ^ebeit,  see  457, 1.   For  a  > o,  see  489,  3, 

468.  VII.  CI.  Its  verbs  do  not  form  an  ablaut-series,  see  458. 

469.  Vni.  CI.  Its  verbs  have  mostly  o  for  a,  a  in  the  pret. 
and  the  majority  belong  to  III.,  IV.,  V.  Some  of  these  were 
unsettled  very  early,  e.  g. ,  M.  H.  G.  pflegen  IV.  and  V.  For 
4  >  o,  6,  see  489,  3. 


214  HISTORICAL   COMMEITTARY    ON   ACCIDENCE.  [470- 


The  Preterit-Present  Verbs. 

470.  In  these  the  meaning  admitted  of  the  perfect  being  used  as  a 
present.  They  are  a  primitive  class.  Compare  Gr,  olda,  Ufiev,  Lat,(?c?i,  novi. 
With  a  few  irregularities  they  can  yet  be  assigned  to  the  regular  ablaut- 
series  as  has  been  done  (see  135).  Weak  preterits  were  formed  without 
connecting  vowel.  Therefore  umlaut  in  the  subj.  The  stem-vowel  is 
the  same  for  the  old  pret.  pL,  the  new  preterit,  the  participles  and  the 
infinitive.  The  participles  (see  453, 1)  were  formed  either  weak  or  strong, 
generally  weak.  Since  the  infinitive  is  a  new  formation  as  well  as  some 
of  the  strong  participles,  and  since  as  in  gan — gunnen  (goitnen)  the  strong 
participle  was  formed  before  there  was  an  infinitive,  it  is  hardly  correct  to 
say  the  infinitive  is  used  instead  of  the  part,  in  modern  German  :  eigen* 
O.  H.  G.  gawi^an,  M.  H.  G.  gunnen,  gegunnen,  {er)kunnen  are  strong 
participles.  The  others,  burfen,  fonnen,  mo  gen,  fotten,  were  formed  later.  No 
doubt,  participles  like  hei^^en,  l%en,  etc.  (see  453, 2),  had  their  influence 
in  the  non-use  of  ge-     Eng.  has  formed  no  infinitive. 

1.  The  inflection  of  the  present  is  that  of  the  regular  strong  pret.  They 
have  even  one  very  old  feature,  viz.,  in  2.  pers.  sg.  t  is  used,  the  second- 
ary ending,  while  in  all  other  strong  verbs  the  optative  has  entered  the 
indicative,  e.  g.,  ndmi,  but  tarsi  ( -i-  durst)  darft,  scalt  ( 4-  thou  shalt), 
maht.  st  in  canst,  anst  is  a  mystery.  This  t  still  occurs  in  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries,  bu  folt  ttic^t  ftel^len  (B.). 

471.  1.  O.  H.  G.  wei^  —  wi^^um  I.  corresponds  exactly  to 
Gr.  olda  —  i'dfjiev,  in  ablaut  and  consonants. 

2.  seal,  scalt  (2.  pers.  sg.),  senium,  scolta  IV. 

It  is  possible  that  senium  is  older  than  the  long  vowel  of  IV. 
("  stalum  "),  for  it  may  be  the  weak  grade  of  ablaut,  like  -boran,  sufan. 

3.  O.  H.  G.      muoj        muost        muoijum  muosa  and  muosta 
M.  H.  G.      muo^        muost        miie^en  muose,  muoste 

subj.  mtiese,  miieste 
N.  H.  G.     mu§,         mupt,         mitffen,  mu§te,    miiptc. 

Of  the  double  form  muose  —  muoste  the  former  is  the  older  and  regu- 
larly developed,  muose  <  *m6t-ta,  muosta  has  the  sufiix  added  once 
more.  The  umlaut  that  appears  in  M.  H.  G.  and  later  in  the  pres.  pi.  and 
inf.  is  difficult  to  account  for. 


474]  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON"  ACCIDENCE.  215 

4.  fott  <  scliol  <  schal  <  seal.  Why  f  <  fc^  ?  Compare  O.  and  M. 
H.  Q.  skal  —  sal,  but  always  (Sc^ulb. 

5.  goitnen  III.  and  taitgen  II.  have  become  weak.  They  come  respec- 
tively <  gan-gunnen,  in  which  g-  is  prefix,  and  <  touc-tugen,  to  be  fit, 
+  Eng.  do  in  *'  it  will  not  do,"  "  how  do  you  do  "  (?). 

6.  eigen  +  own  <  eigan  is  the  strong  part,  of  a  stem  of  which  there 
appears  only  a  pi.  aigum  in  O.  H.  G.  g  according  to  Verner's  Law,  It 
belongs  to  the  a  —  a  ablaut-series  like  hei^an  —  hej  —  giheij^an.  tar 
—  turren  +  dare  has  disappeared.  Its  meaning  has  passed  into  barf  — 
burfen. 

472.  1.  Notice  that  Eng.  must  is  really  a  double  pret.-pres.  verb. 
must  is  the  weak  preterit  used  again  as  a  present.  n)U§te  <  weste,  see 
489,  1.    Compare  Eng.  to  wit,  wist,  wot.     See  Skeat. 

2.  O.  H.  G.  will  wilt,  wili,  pi.  wellemes,  wellet,  wellent,  pret.  welta,  inf. 
wellau.  o  appears  for  e  already  in  this  period  (see  489,  1).  M.  H.  G.  2. 
pers.  sg.  is  wilt,  wil.  N.  H.  G.  wiEjl.  This  is  really  no  pret.-pres.  verb, 
but  we  have  according  to  custom  put  it  at  the  end  of  this  class.  It  is 
really  a  mi-verb,  whose  ind.  was  lost.     Compare  L.  mlim. 

^««     r  ,  Mi- Verbs. 

473.  feim 

1.  O.  H.  G.  bim,  bis(t),  ist,  birum,  birut,  sint.  Subj.  si,  etc. 
Inf.  sin,  wesan  V.  Imp.  wis,  wesat,  sit  ;  pret.  was ;  subj. 
wdri.     In  M.  H.  G.  tbe  pres.  pi.  runs:  1.  p.  birn,  sint,  sin; 

2.  p.  birt,  sit,  sint ;  3.  p.  sint,  sin.     In  N.  H.  G.  mir  fmt)  <  the 

3.  person;  t^^r  feit)  <  the  subjunctive;  fte  ftnt  is  primitive,  comp. 
L.  sunt,  sint. 

2.  Three  stems  have  helped  to  form  its  conjugation,  viz.,  Ves-,  Vb'x-, 
L.  fui,  Gr.  (pvD,  and  the  verb  wesan.  It  would  lead  us  too  far  to  enter 
minutely  upon  the  part  each  plays,  but  the  development  is  not  at  all  dif- 
ficult to  trace.  Only  r  in  birum,  birn  is  a  mystery,  but  it  appears  also  in 
the  reduplicating  verbs  of  VII. 

474.  gdn,  gen,  gangan,  g  e  ^  n,  +  go. 

1.  O.  H.  G.  gdm,  gas,  gat,  gam,  gat,  gdnt;  g^m,  g^s,  g^t,  g^t, 
g^nt;  the  subj.  only  g^,  ges,  ge,  etc.     Imp.  ganc,  gdt,  get. 


216  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   OK   ACCIDENCE'.  [475. 

2.  The  verb  gangan  is  of  VII.  The  relation  of  a  to  e  is  not  clear.  Kluge 
has  shown  that  gen  is  compounded  of  ga  (prefix)  +  Vi,  L.  ire.  Then  gem 
<  ga-im,  ges  <  ga-is,  etc.     See  his  Diet. 

475.  ^Idn,  sten,  stantan,  ft  e  ^  n,  -f  stand. 

1.  It  inflects  just  like  gen.  standan,  stuont  —  gistandan  according 
to  VI.    A  past  participle  gestan  occurs  also. 

2.  Both  gangan  and  stantan  show  a  secondary  stem  and  a  present- 
formation  with  n  (see  457,  2),  which  n  also  entered  the  preterit  and  the 
other  forms. 

476.  iuon,  {%\xxi,  -\-  do. 

1.  O.  H.  G.  tuom,  tuos,  tuot,  tuom,  tuot,  tuont  ;  subj.  tuo, 
tuos,  tuo,  tuom,  tuot,  tuon;  pret.  teta,  tdti,  teta,  tdtum,  tatut, 
tdtum  ;  subj.  tdti,  tatis,  tati.  M.  H.  G.  subjunctive  with 
umlaut.     Past  part,  gitan. 

2.  teta  is  the  pure  reduplicated  perf.  te  +  ta,  the  stem.  The  pi.  in  a 
is  probably  ablaut  of  the  almost  lost  series  I.-E.  e  —  6,  O.  H.  G.  a  —  uo. 
Comp.  Gr.  prjyvvjui  —  eppuya.  N.  H.  G.  t^t  <  M.  H.  G.  tet  is  archaic  and 
has  a  curious  spelling  as  if  it  were  subj. 


478]  HISTORY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  217 


C.    HISTORY  OF  THE  LANG-UAGE. 

477.  "German"  belongs  to  the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  group  of  languages,  which 
again  is  a  member  of  the  Indo-European  group.  To  the  latter  belong  the  following : 
the  Aryan  (Sanskrit,  etc.),  the  Iranic  (old  Batric  and  Persian),  Greek,  Latin,  Keltic, 
Slavic,  Armenian,  Germanic,  and  perhaps  as  a  separate  member  Albanian.  Whether 
the  Germanic  languages  are  more  intimately  related  with  one  member  than  with  an- 
other is  considered  very  doubtful  by  most  authorities,  though  some  think  Slavic  and 
Germanic  so  related. 


478.     Characteristics  of  the  Germanic  languages: 

1.  Grimm's  Law  with  Veruer's  Law  (see  407 — 416). 

2.  The  double  verb-inflection,  one  by  ablaut,  the  other  by  composition. 
The  suffixes  -da,  -ta  in  the  weak  preterit  are  quite  peculiar.  The  tenses 
have  been  reduced  to  two.  The  future  and  the  subjunctive  (see  448) 
are  lost. 

3.  A  certain  "law  of  finals"  showed  itself  in  General  Teutonic  in  the 
consonants,  but  the  "  law  of  final  vowels  "  belongs  entirely  to  the  indi- 
vidual dialects.  For  instance:  I.-E.  ^h'eroit  became  G.  T.  %eroi,  Go. 
herai  (e  written  for  Go.  ai).  N.  sg.  masc,  o-stems :  G.  T.  ^dagoz,  Go. 
dags,  Scand.  dagr,  Ags.  dag,  O.  H.  G.  ta/i. 

N.  sg.  fem.:  I.-E.  ^gebd  >  G.  T.  gebo,  Ags.  giefu,  but  by  levelling  of 
Ace.  and  Nom.  O.  H.  G.  geha. 

4.  The  limitation  of  the  accent  to  the  stem-syllable  was  probably 
General  Teutonic,  though  Verner's  Law  shows  that  the  Indo-European 
accent  was  preserved  until  the  surd  spirants  in  the  unaccented  syllable 
became  sonant.  Gr.  rcaT'np  shows  I.-E.  accent,  but  G.  T.  fathdr  >  Go. 
fadhar  >  fadar  >  O.  H.  G.  fater. 

5.  The  spread  of  the  n-declension,  which  in  German  is  still  going  on. 
See  428,  2.    The  locative  case  is  lost. 

6.  The  double  adjective  declension.  The  other  I.-E.  dialects  decline 
adjective  and  substantive  alike.  The  Germanic  has,  1,  a  strong  declen- 
sion made  up  of  substantive  and  pronominal  case-endings ;  3,  a  weak  de- 
clension identical  with  the  n-declension  of  substantives.    See  437. 


218  HISTOKY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  [479- 

Classification  of  the  Germanic  Languages. 

479.  The  following  is  in  our  opinion  the  best  classification  . 

I.  East  Germanic,  viz.,  Gothic,  the  language  of  the  Goths,  who  once 
probably  occupied  European  Russia.  The  chief  literary  monument  is 
part  of  the  Bible  translation  made  for  the  Westgoths  by  their  bishop 
Ulfila  (A.  D.  310—381).    The  manuscript  is  of  the  sixth  century. 

a.  In  comparison  with  Anglo-Saxon  and  0.  H.  G.  the  language  is 
"  simple,"  but  in  spite  of  the  great  age  of  its  literary  monuments,  it 
should  be  made  the  basis  for  the  comparative  study  of  the  group  only 
with  great  caution. 

II.  The  North  Germanic  or  Scandinavian  Languages.  Two 
groups :  East-8candinaman,y'\7..,  Swedish  and  Danish  ;  West-ticandinamm, 
viz.,  Norwegian  and  Icelandic.  Earliest  literature  of  East-Scandinavian 
of  the  fourtheenth  century  consisting  of  laws.  Runes  of  the  5.  (1)  cen- 
tury. Rich  literature  of  West-Scandinavian  on  Iceland,  colonized  by  Nor- 
wegians, of  the  13th  century  and  earlier.  The  literary  language  of  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Denmark  is  East- Scandinavian.  Norwegian  exists  only  in  dia- 
lects.   Icelandic  is  the  official  as  well  as  the  popular  language  of  Iceland. 

III.  West  Germanic  Dialects,  English  was  very  early  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  group,  being  the  language  of  the  early  colonists  in 
England,  who  were  mainly  Frisians,  viz..  Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes. 
The  Frisians  emigrated  from  their  old  homes  on  the  coast  of  the  North 
Sea  from  the  river  Scheldt  to  the  river  Eider  in  Schleswig.  The  Jutes 
lived  to  the  north  of  them.  This  settlement  continued  during  the  5th 
and  6th  centuries.  In  the  9th  the  Danish  conquest  occurred  and  in  the 
lltli  the  great  Norman  conquest,  which  gave  to  English  that  great  influx 
of  Romance  words  and  removed  it  still  more  from  its  cognate  dialects  on 
the  continent.  Literature  beginning  with  the  7th  century.  Runes, 
Beowulf,  Caedmon,  etc. 

a.  The  oldest  dialects  are,  1,  Anglian,  incl.  Northumbrian  and  Mercian  ; 
2,  Saxon,  the  chief  is  West-Saxon ;  3,  Kentish. 

480.  The  Continental  West  Germanic  dialects  are  divided  according  to 
Grimm's  Law.  The  North  and  East-Germanic,  and  English  only  under- 
went the  first  shifting,  that  is,  the  General  Germanic  (Teutonic)  shifting. 
The  continental  dialects  shifted  again,  some  more,  some  less. 


481]  HISTORY   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  219 

Classification  of  the  German  Dialects. 

1.  The  Low  (or  Nobth)  Gebman  shifted  only  th  >  d,  compare  Engl. 
'*  the  "  —  Low  German  "  de  ". 

2.  The  Middle  German  shifted  much  more. 

3.  The  South  German  {Oberdeutsch)  shifted  most  of  all. 

a.  "  High  German  "  if  it  is  to  translate  "  HocMeutsch  "  is  ambiguous, 
since  many  still  make  "  hochdeutsch  "  include  "  Oberdeutsch"  and  "  Mit- 
teldeutsch."  Nieder  (low),  Mitiel  (middle),  and  Ober  (upper,  south)  refer 
to  the  geography  of  the  country  only. 

481.    L  The  Low  German  Dialects. 

1.  Frisian.  Though  the  literature  is  only  of  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies, the  language  shows  a  stage  at  least  some  300  years  older.  Its 
territory  (see  484)  has  been  largely  encroached  upon  by  Low  Saxon  and 
Frankish.  It  embraces  still  the  northern  provinces  of  Holland  (West 
Frisian);  Oldenburg  and  the  Hanoverian  county  of  Ostfriesland  (East 
Frisian);  North  Sleswic  with  the  islands  off  the  western  Sleswic-Holstein 
coast  (North  Frisian).  But  the  modern  dialects  of  the  region  described 
are  strongly  influenced  by  Low  Saxon. 

2.  Low  Saxon.  Earliest  literature  the  Heliand  of  the  9th  century. 
Territory  very  large. 

Draw  a  line  from  Dflsseldorf  to  Cassel  curving  slightly  southward;  from  Cassel  to 
Quedlinburg  to  Posen  and  to  the  boundary  of  the  empire.  All  that  is  north  of  this, 
except  Frisian  and  Slavic  in  East  Prussia,  is  Low  Saxon.  Two  thirds  of  its  territory 
is  colonial,  however.  The  Slavic  conquests  from  the  6th  to  the  9th  centuries  had  their 
western  limit  in  the  following  line  :  Kiel,  halfway  between  Brunswick  and  Magdeburg, 
Naumburg,  Coburg,  Linz,  Klagenfurt.  What  is  east  of  it  is  colonial  for  the  German 
language,  either  for  Low,  Middle,  or  High  German.  About  half  of  Germany  and  three 
fourths  of  Prussia  therefore  are  on  once  Slavic  territory. 

a.  Frisian  and  Low  Saxon  together  are  now  often  called  "  Plattdeutsch,''''  which  even 
in  our  day  can  boast  of  a  poet,  Klau«  Groth  (Holstein  dialect),  and  of  such  a  capital 
novelist  as  Fritz  Renter  (Mecklenburg  dialect)  who  died  a  few  years  ago. 

3.  Low  Frankish.  Literature  :  oldest  the  Lex  Salica,  very  badly  pre- 
served, and  fragments  of  a  translation  of  the  Psalms.  Of  the  12th  century 
the  "  Eineide  "  by  Veldeke,  and  in  the  13th  a  very  rich  literature  in  Hol- 
land and  Brabant.  Territory :  Holland  (Dutch  crowding  out  Frisian), 
the  northern  half  of  Belgium  (Flemish),  and  the  northern  part  of  the 
Prussian  Rhine  Province.  Dutch  is  now  the  only  Low  German  literary 
language.     Attempts  are  making  to  revive  Flemish. 


220  HISTORY  OF  THE  LAl^GUAGE.  [462- 

482.  II.  Middle  German. 

For  this  group  draw  about  the  following  line,  which  will  separate  it  from  the 
South  German  dialects  :  From  Nancy  (but  this  is  French)  across  the  frontier  wiih  a 
curve  north  of  Strassburg  to  Kastatt  in  Baden,  through  Heilbronn  to  Eichstadt,  then 
north  to  Eger,  from  there  directly  eastward,  but  Bohemia  is  Slavic,  of  course. 

Beginning  in  the  west  we  have  then  : 

1.  Middle  Frankish  (according  to  Braune).  Its  territory  consists  chiefly 
of  the  Rhine  Province,  whose  centre  is  Cologne.     Very  little  literature. 

2.  South  FranMsh  and  Hessian.  South  and  west  of  1,  and  north  of 
South  German  line.  The  eastern  limit  would  be  a  line  drawn  from 
Cassel  to  Heilbronn.  A  rich  and  old  literature  :  Isidorus  of  the  8th  cen 
tury.  The  great  gospel  harmony  of  Otfrid  of  Weissenburg.  The  Lud- 
wigslied  and  much  more. 

3.  East  or  High  FranMsh.  East  of  3.  Eastern  limit  is  the  S.  G.  line 
from  Eichstadt  to  Eger  and  a  line  from  Eger  to  Cassel.  Its  old  literary 
centre  was  Fulda.  The  larger  monuments  are  Tatian,  and  Williram's 
paraphrase  of  the  Song  of  Songs,  about  the  year  900. 

The  next  three  are  almost  entirely  on  colonized  territory,  viz.,  4.  Thii- 
Hngian,  north  of  3  and  south  of  the  Low  German  line;  5.  Upper  Saxon. 
chiefly  the  present  kingdom  of  Saxony  ;  6.  Silesian.  5.  and  6.  are  east 
of  the  rest,  but  do  not  extend  to  the  boundary  of  the  empire,  since  there 
is  a  long  stretch  still  Slavic,  though  with  German  written  language. 
Their  literatures  belong  to  the  M.  H.  G.  period. 

483.  III.  South  German. 

The  southern  limit  towards  the  Komance  dialects  would  be,  roughly  speaking,  a 
line  drawn  from  the  lake  of  Geneva  eastward  to  Klagenfurt  in  Austria  and  beyond, 
then  directly  north  through  Pressburg  to  Briinn.  The  eastern  boundary  is  the  Hun- 
garian, the  northeastern  the  Slavic  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 

1.  Alemanic,  divided  into :  a.  Alemanic  proper,  covering  Alsace,  the 
larger  part  of  Baden  and  Switzerland.  &.  Sudbian,  covering  the  larger 
part  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Suabian  Bavaria.  The  eastern  limit  would  be 
a  line  from  Eichstadt  to  Fiissen.  The  literary  centre  was  St.  Gallen. 
Abundant  literature  of  the  8th  and  9th  centuries.  The  "  Benedictiner 
Kegel."  The  Paternoster  and  Credo  of  St.  Gallen.  Vocabularius  St. 
Galli.  Murbach  Hymns.  '*  Christ  and  the  Samaritaii  woman."  The 
extensive  works  of  Notker. 


486]  HISTOEY  OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  221 

2.  Bavarian-Austrian,  covering  the  larger  part  of  Bavaria  and  non- 
Slavic  Austria.  The  oldest  of  all  Old  H.  G.  is  the  Glossary  of  Kero 
(740) ;  the  Glossary  of  Hrabanus  Maurus ;  the  so-called  "  Exhurtatio  "  and 
the  poem  Muspilll,  besides  smaller  pieces. 

484.  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  give  here  a  description  of  the  phonology  of  these  (iia> 
lects.  Besides  Grimm's  Law  the  long  vowels  and  the  diphthongs  are  the  chief  criteria  for 
their  classification.  Their  territories  have  not  remarkably  changed.  Note  that  Frisian 
has  been  driven  out  of  Holland  by  Dutch  and  in  Germany  it  leads  a  very  precarious 
existence  upon  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Hanover  and  Oldenburg,  having  been 
crowded  out  by  "  Plattdeutsch."  Low  German  has  also  encroached  upon  Middle 
German  territory  in  northeastern  Germany.  The  only  scientific  description  that  we 
have  of  any  modern  dialect  is  that  by  Winteler  of  the  Kerenzer  dialect  (Swiss- 
Alemanic). 

History  of  German. 

485.  In  point  of  time  we  divide  the  history  both  of  the  lan- 
guage and  of  the  literature  into  three  periods,  viz.,  Old  High- 
German  till  1100;  Middle  High  German  till  1500;  New  High 
German  since  then,  perhaps  better  till  about  1800,  because 
the  literary  language  of  the  18th  century  is  already  taking  on 
an  archaic  character  in  comparison  with  the  language  of  the 
last  fifty  years.     See  487,  3. 

1.  The  literature  of  the  O.  H.  G.  period  is  entirely  dialectic  and  clerical. 
We  have  one  poem,  unfortunately  only  fragmentary,  tlie  Hildebrantslied, 
that  goes  back  in  matter  and  meter  to  the  period  before  the  introduction 
of  Christianity. 

2.  There  has  been  much  contention,  whether  there  was  a  standard 
written  language  in  the  M.  H.  G.  period.  Lachmann  and  his  school  main- 
tain that  there  was  and  that  it  died  out  with  the  decay  of  literature  in 
the  14th  century.  But  the  opinion  is  losing  ground.  The  reasons 
against  are  well  stated  in  Paul's  "Gab  es  eine  mittelhochdeutsche 
Schriftsprache  ?  "  The  literature  was  mainly  lyrical  and  epic.  Its  climax 
falls  in  the  13th  century.  The  chief  differences  between  the  O.  and  M. 
H.  G.  periods  are  :  1,  the  spread  of  umlaut ;  2,  the  weathering  of  unac- 
cented and  inflectional  vowels  to  mere  e. 

486.  With  the  N.  H.  G.  period  begins  the  written  lang\iage  that  became 
not  suddenly,  but  gradually  the  standard  literary  language  of  Germany. 
In  phonology  it  agrees  with  that  of  the  East  Frankish  dialect,  which  is 
the  M.  G.  dialect  that  is  most  closely  related  to  S.  G.     Its  territory  was  in 


222  HISTORY  OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  [487- 

the  very  centre  of  Germany,   Both  this  position  and  tMs  relationship  are 
two  elements  tliat  help  to  account  for  its  spread. 

1.  From  this  same  centre  started  the  Reformation.  Luther's  share  in 
the  establishment  of  the  written  language  is  generally  not  well  stated  and 
even  overrated.  Fourteen  translations  of  the  Bible  had  been  published  up 
to  1518  in  H.  G.  alone,  made  from  the  Vulgate.  The  language  was  based 
upon  the  ^' Kanzleisprache,''  i.  e.,  the  "official"  language  in  which  em- 
peror and  princes  published  decrees  and  laws  and  in  which  all  govern- 
ment business  was  transacted. 

3.  There  were  at  first  several  of  these  "Kanzleisprachen."  differing  more 
or  less.  We  find  traces  of  them  as  early  as  the  14th  century.  Those  of 
Austria,  Bohemia  and  Saxony  were  first  amalgamated.  It  was  this  lan- 
guage that  Luther  used  in  his  Bible  translation,  moulded  by  him,  of 
course,  as  every  man  of  genius  will  mould  his  mother-tongue.  Luther,  by 
birth  a  Middle  German,  had  come  in  contact  with  peopleof  all  stations, 
speaking  Low  and  South  German.  No  Bible,  the  circumstances  being  the 
same,  translated  into  strict  South  German  would  and  could  have  been 
accepted  by  North  Germany.  Again  Luther  had  sprung  from  among 
the  people  and  had  a  most  hearty  appreciation  of  folk-lore  and  all  that  is 
"  volkstiimlich,"  of  proverbs,  saws  and  songs.  This  made  him  a  trans- 
lator for  the  people.  The  proverbs  of  Solomon  and  the  psalms  are  with- 
out doubt  the  most  taking  portions  of  his  translation. 

487.  The  spirit  of  the  Reformation  was  one  roused  from  the  lethargy 
of  the  preceding  centuries  and  ready  for  something  new.  Luther's  New 
Testament  appeared  in  1522,  the  whole  Bible  in  1534.  Besides  the 
Bible  the  catechism,  hymns,  sermons  and  the  numerous  polemical 
pamphlets  were  written  and  read  in  the  new  language.  With  the 
Reformation  began  also  the  public  school  {" volksschule")  and  the  first 
grammars  and  " formeWucher  "  appeared,  written  often  by  the  lawyers, 
who,  of  course,  favored  the  "  Kanzleisprache."  But  last  and  foremost  of 
all  the  invention  of  printing,  some  fifty  years  before  the  Reformation, 
made  a  common  language  possible. 

1.  The  clerks  would  write  and  spell  as  they  spoke,  i.e.,  according  to  their 
own  dialect.  Printing  brought  about  a  certain  uniformity  in  the  orthog- 
raphy. It  spread  the  language  to  the  most  different  parts  of  the  country. 
About  the  year  1600,  books  were  already  cheap  in  comparison  to  the  costly 
manuscripts.  In  1523  a  Bible  was  printed  at  Bale,  which  had  as  appendix 
a  sort  of  dictionary  explaining  the  tei'kns  unfamiliar  to  the  Swiss. 


488]  HISTOEY   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  223 

2.  The  struggle  of  the  new  language  was  hardest  in  Switzerland.  Both 
Catholic  and  Calvinist  objected  to  a  Lutheran  language.  In  North  Ger- 
many it  was  favored  by  the  fact  that  the  whole  North  became  Protestant 
en  masse.  Yet  hymns  were  printed  there  in  Low  German  for  a  long  time. 
In  the  17th  century  High  German  preachers  came  to  the  North.  But 
through  printing  the  writings  of  one  man  exercise  a  great  influence  upon 
the  speech  of  his  readers.  Printing  in  fact  has  introduced  into  the  de- 
velopment of  language  a  certain  stiff,  artificial  element  that  the  written, 
and  especially  the  unwritten,  dialects  do  not  have.  The  printed  language 
has  more  of  a  fixed,  stereotyped  character  than  dialect.  But  on  the  other 
hand  we  must  remember  that  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  not  the 
language.  They  are  only  contrivances  that  represent  speech  very  im- 
perfectly, contrivances  invented  several  thousand  years  ago,  which  we 
try  to  apply  now  to  that  most  subtile  institution — language,  that  has 
been  changing  and  developing  ever  since. 

3.  The  language  of  the  19th  century  differs  not  a  little  from  the  lan- 
guage of  the  16th.  The  differences  in  forms  and  functions  have  been  treated 
to  some  extent  in  Part  I.  The  17th  century  is  a  dark  gloomy  page  in  the 
history  of  Germany  and  almost  a  blank  in  its  literature.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  we  see  the  beginnings  of  the  classical  period.  Until 
then  Latin  was  the  language  of  the  learned,  and  in  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries  there  was  a  large  number  of  foreign  words  both  in  the  written 
and  spoken  languages  that  were  never  assimilated,  but  driven  out  again 
by  a  school  of  literary  men  that  started  a  revival  of  the  love  of  old 
German. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  and  far-reaching  sound- 
changes  in  the  transition  from  M.  H.  G.  to  N.  H.  G. 

488.    A.  Vowels. 

1.  The  further  spread  of  umlaut  by  analogy  (levelling). 

Ex. :  as  a  sign  of  the  plaral,  see  48;  in  derivatives  as  in:  glau6tg,  »ttter== 
lid),  6ruberltc^,  S3riiberd)en,  J^oc^terlein  ;  in  long-stemmed  weak  verbs  as  in : 
l^oren,  prte,  ge|5rt^  <  hoeren,  horte,  gehorit  —  gehCrter  (see  455,  2). 

2.  The  lengthening  of  short  accented  stem-vowels  in  the 
open  syllable,  and  of  a  and  e  before  r,  rt,  rd.  To  this  process 
the  largest  number  of  the  present  long  vowels  is  due. 


224  HISTORY   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  [488- 

Ex.:  a^ogel,  |)of— .^ofe^;  QtHxtn  (  <  bern),  QiXod^xtn,  lekm  totbtn,  fe^en; 
^at)n—^a^m^ ;  3::^ur,  mir,  tt)ir,  cr,  ber  (demonstrative),  Ux  (but  Mrfu§) ;  ^erb, 
Werbe,  mxt,  jart,  33art.  Ur  in  the  sense  of  "great "  as  in  :  Urgro^ttater,  other- 
wise short  or  long :  Uriaut,  Urfprung,  but  Urtetl  is  always  short,  -art  and 
-arj  are  unsettled  still.    Compare  ^Srj,  SSJarje. 

a.  The  short  vowel  is  retained  before  more  than  one  consonant  and  in 
a  closed  syllable,  except  before  r  (rt,  rd).  Ex.:  ^ojfen,  i)ott,  renneti,  ^edfc, 
twoUen,  fafl,  etc.,  but  mir,  wir,  as  above. 

b.  This  point  of  N.  H.  G.  phonology  is  by  no  means  all  cleared  up.  Paul  is  the  only 
one  that  has  thrown  any  light  upon  it.  See  P.  and  B.  Beitrage,  VII.  p.  101-.  When 
through  inflectional  endings  the  stem-vowel  is  now  in  an  open,  now  in  a  closed  sylla- 
ble, the  standard  pronunciation  demands  levelling  in  favor  of  the  long  vowel  of  the  open 
syllable.  For  instance,  ba§  ©laS,  @(aye§,  ©tafe,  ®Ia§,  ©lafer,  all  with  long  stem-vowels. 
In  N.  G.,  however,  ©lag,  ®va§,  Stag,  Sob,  (N.  and  A.  sg.),  are  always  short  according  to 
the  law  of  short  vowel  in  a  closed  syllable.  N.  and  S.  G.  agree  in  the  levelling  between 
the  sg.  and  pi.  pret.  of  ablaut-series,  IV.  and  V.  in  favor  of  the  long  vowel  of  the  plural, 
e.  g.^  ga6— gaben,  jat)— fa:^en, 

c.  This  principle  may  be  stated  in  another  way  :  N.  H.  G.  makes  a  M. 
H.  G.  accented  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  long,  either  by  length- 
ening the  vowel  or  by  lengthening,  i.e.,  "  doubling,"  the  consonant,  par- 
ticularly if  that  consonant  be  t  or  m,  and  if  a  single  consonant  is  followed 
by  er,  el,  en. 

Ex.:  ©tatte,  ©itte,  fommen,  ©ommer,  Setter;  in  the  pret.  and  past  part,  of 
the  I.  and  II.  ablaut-series:  fi^mtt  —  gefi^nitten,  fott  —  gefottcn.  This  change 
began  in  the  M.  H.  G.  period,  starting  from  L.  G.  it  spread  over  M.  and 
over  S.  G.  as  late  as  the  16th  century. 

3.  Long  accented  vowels  are  shortened  before  more  than 
one  consonant. 

a.  This  process  is  not  far-reaching,  but  includes  also  the  long  vowels 
sub  4,  that  have  sprung  from  diphthongs.  It  started  with  the  M.  G. 
dialects. 

Ex.:  ec^t  L.  G.,  see  493, 4,  <  ^haft;  bac^te,  bra(|te  (see  454, 3).  STc^t  < 
dhte  ;  ^err,  ^errfci^en;  l^orc^en  ;  ftng,  ^irtg,  ging  <  fienc,  hienc,gienc;  »ier  in 
the  compounds  »ierje|in,  -jig,  ^iertcl,  etc.,  9)'?utter  <  muoter. 

4.  The  simplification  of  the  diphthongs  ie  >  i,  still  spelt 
ie ;  uo  >  ii ;  lie  >  u  long. 

Examples  very  numerous :  S3Iut  <  Uuot;  Wi\xi  <  muot;  ©lite  <  guete; 
fu§  <  sue^e;  fiil^ren  <  m&ren;  Hitmen  <  Uuejen;  lie^;  ttef;  always  in  the 


489]  HISTORY  OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  225 

preterit  of  Class  VII.  and  in  the  present  of  Class  II.,  viz.,  riet,  ftel,  l^ieten, 
fteben,  but  see  3. 

a.  This  also  is  a  M.  G.  feature  that  was  fixed  upon  the  "  Schriftsprache," 
showing  itself  as  early  as  the  13th  century.  The  S.  G.  dialects  do  not 
know  it  yet  (see  Hart's  Goethe's  Prose,  p.  40,  bottom). 

5.  The  diphthongization  of  the  long  vowels  i,  u,  iu 
(whether  <  G.  T.  eu  or  umlaut  of  u,  value  ii  long)  >  ei,  m, 
eu  (du),  respectively. 

Ex.:  brei  <  dri,  SBeiB  <  un^p ;  ei  in  the  present  of  the  I.  Class;  taut  < 
lUt;  ^aut  <  Mt;  ©au  <  »ii;  .^aufer  <  hiusir  <  hits;  3)?aufe  <  miuse  < 
mils;  %xt\xi  <  triuwe;  eu^  <  inch;  Seuc^te  <  liuhte;  er  kut  <  hiutet.  The 
Eng.  cognates,  e.  p'.,  the  verbs  of  the  I.  Class  write  —  wrote,  shine  —  shone, 
loud,  hide  (<  Ags.  hyd),  sow,  house,  mouse —  mice  show  that  a  similar 
diphthongization  of  long  i  and  u  has  taken  place,     o  in  wrote,  shone 

<  Ags.  d  <  ai  corresponds  to  the  old  diphthong,  M.  H.  G.  ei  as  in 
schein,  rei^,  etc.  Modern  German  ei  therefore  goes  back  to  i  in  ^etrat  < 
hirat ;  to  ei  in  fc^eiben  <  scheiden;  at  always  goes  back  to  ei,  ai  as  in  9)tai, 
^aifer.  au  <  u  in  ^aua  <  hUs;  but  <  ou  in  laufen  <  loufen;  ciu  (eu)  <  iu  < 
u  by  umlaut,  in  ^aufer  <  Musir  <  hits  ;  but  eu  <  iu  (eu)  in  Seute  <  liutey 
l^eulen  <  hiuLen ;  and  another  eu  <  6u  umlaut  of  ou  ( <  au)  in  ^reube  < 
woude  ( <  *frauwida),  ^eugen  <  hougen  <  lougen  ( <  ^baugjan,  ablauts.  II,). 

a.  This  is  a  S.G,  feature,  especially  Bavarian,  in  which  dialect  it  started 
about  1200.  It  spread  over  East  Frankish  and  Upper  Saxon  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries  and  latest  over  Suabian.  All  the  other  dialects  whether  L., 
M.  or  S.  G.  do  not  know  this  change,  "  House  "  is  still  "Ms  "  in  Bremen 
and  in  Bale.  The  new  diphthongs  are  still  kept  apart  from  the  old  ones 
in  dialect,  but  the  standard  spoken  language  recognizes  no  difference. 

489.  The  following  changes  do  not  affect  very  many  words.  They  are 
mostly  S.  G.  features  and  though  quite  old,  the  standard  and  the  common 
spoken  language  do  not  agree  upon  all  words.  The  former  favors  e  and 
i,  the  latter  o  and  it, 

1.  e,  e  >  0  in  ergii^en  (Classics  still  erge^en),  ^otte,  Cofirel,  2bwe,jw5tf  (stand- 
ard jipelf),  f(!^tt)5ren  and  a  few  others.     Rarely  e,  e  >  o  or  u  after  WJ  wotten 

<  wellen  ;  too^I  <  wela;  fomntcn  <  queman.  This  is  as  old  as  O.  H,  G., 
however. 

2.  i>  itin  ^itlfe  —  |)itfc;  fprit^en  — frrt^ett;  witrbtg;  n)it§te;  ©pric^wort — 
©pru(|wort.    i  <  ii  in  JDtrlen + work  and  ^iffen,  but  also  still  ^itflTen  +  cushion. 


226  HISTORY   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  [490- 

3.  a  >  0,  O^nmac^t,  folk-etymology  for  D^ma(|t  <  dmaht ;  tt)0  <  -mj^  ;  o^ne 

<  dne;  ^Wonat  <  mdn6t;  and  2)o^Ie  <  tdhele.    Compare  2Ba|n  and  %x^* 
tt)o|tn. 

4.  Both  S.  and  M.  G.  is  u  >o,  u  >  6,  regularly  before  modern  mm, 
nn  and  n  +  any  other  cons,  but  see  125, 1. 

Ex.:  Past  part,  and  pret.  subj.  of  Class  III.,  2.;  SBonne  <  wunne;  fromm 

<  'Drum;  fonber  <  funber  ;  umfonft  <  umhesus ;   ©o^n  <  sun.     Compare 
SSrojtn  (poetic),  but  S3runnen  (why  u  is  not  clear) ;  9Jion(i>  <  miinich 

5.  Before  palatal  g,  c^  e  >  i.  By  this  -ig  and  -ic^  have  become  the 
only  suffixes  instead  of  O.  and  M.  H.  G.  ec,  ae,  ech,  ach,  see  509. 

Ex.:  ^itttd^  <  fettach;-  ^xm\^  <  kranecTi,  O.  H,  G.  chranuh;  ferttg  < 
vertec;  ^onig  <  honec. 

490.    B.  Consonants. 

1.  The  spread  of  fc^  for  f  before  I,  m,  tt,  and  w. 

Ex.:  <S^taf  <  sldf,  +  sleep;  (Sd^Ietm  <  sUm  +  slime;  ©c^meer  < 
smer ;  fc^meipen  <  sm^en,  +  smite;  ©c^nee  <  sne,  +  snow;  (Sc()nepfc  < 
snepfe,  +  snipe;  (S(^tt)et§  <  swei^  +  sweat;  f(^tt)immett  <  svyimmen,  + 
swim.    The  Eng.  cognates  still  show  old  s. 

a.  This  is  a  S.  G.  feature,  starting  in  the  15th  century  and  extending 
over  the  M.  G.  and  the  colonized  eastern  L.  G.  dialects  (Paul).  la  the 
16th  f^  was  substituted  for  f  after  r  in  a  few  words  and  later  still  in 
initial  fp,  jl. 

All  these  fi^'s  are  recognized  by  the  standard  pronunciation,  but  the  S.  and  M.  G. 
dialects  know  almost  no  limit  in  the  use  of  \^.  M.  G.  dialects  substitute  it  even  for 
%  viz.,  mx\6)  for  mi(i^.    See  391, 1. 

6.  (S  >  fc^  also  after  r,  e.g.,  ^irfc^  <  Ai>^  +  hart,  ^irfd^e<  ^w'^e  +  cherry, 
l)errfc^en  <  hersen.  Since  fc^p,  fc^t  are  not  recognized  in  the  spelling  of 
initial  fp,  fi,  Eng!  st,  sp,  and  G.  %  \p  correspond  :  (Stabt,  <Btatt,  ©tatte  < 
Stat,  +  stead ;  <S^tc§  <  spi^  +  spit. 

c.  This  fc^  for  f  is  not  a  phonetic  change  as  is  generally  taken  for  granted.  In  the 
transition  from  O.  >  M.  H.  G.  so  had  become  sch  first  before  the  front  vowels,  then 
before  all  the  vowels  and  then  before  r.  sc  >  sch  before  a  palatal  vowel  is  a  phonetic 
transition  called  palatalization  due  to  the  following  vowel  and  attended  by  loosening 
of  the  contact,  and  is  known  in  Eng.  and  the  Eomance  dialects  as  well.  See  Ellis' 
Early  Eng.  Pronunciation,  p.  1154-.  The  transition-sound  was  no  doubt  the  present 
Westphalian  sjh,  a  double  sound.  At  first  only  sc  >  sch  in  the  above  order,  and  not 
8  >  sch.    The  links  were  sk  +  pal.  vowol  >  skj  >  sjh  >  sh. 


490]  HISTORY    OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  227 

d.  Before  vowels  and  r  G.  fd^  corresponds  to  Eng.  sh,  e.  g.,  ©^tff  +  ship  ; 
©c^am  -f-  sliame ;  fc^on  +  sheen ;  ©c^rot  +  shread,  shroud  ;  ©c^rein  + 
shrine.  When  Eng.  sc,  sk  corresponds  to  G.  fd),  ff,  there  is  something 
wrong,  due  generally  to  foreign  origin  or  influence,  in  one  or  the  other. 
Compare  <B<i)uk  +  school ;  ©d^aum  +  scum  (Norse) ;  Sanbf(|aft  +  land- 
scape (D.)  ;  ©fanba'l  +  scandal  (Fr.). 

2.  ^  (<  z  <  t,  see  414,  1)  >  s,  written  f,  ^,  ff,  5. 

This  is  a  S.  G.  feature,  beginning  with  final  ^  in  the  13th  century, 
spreading  over  M.  G.  L.  G.  still  like  Eng.;  notice  the  cognates.  Ex.: 
n)ai3  <  wa^  +  what ;  au^  <  H^  +  out ;   SBaffer  <  wa^^er  +  water ;  S3infe 

<  bin^,  +  bentgrass.    Examples  very  numerous. 

3.  d^  =  kh  (<  old  ch,  cch  and  medial  h)  has  become  jh 
after  front- vowels  and  after  r,  1,  and  n.     See  375. 

This  transition  is  not  shared  by  S.  G.  The  Eng.  cognates  show  k  or 
silent  gh  for  I.-E.  k:  nid^t  <  niht  (=  nikht)  +  not,  nought ;  SSic^t  <  mJit 
+  wight. 

a.  &i  before  s  in  the  same  syllable  >  ks,  the  same  in  Eng.  as 
early  as  Anglo-Saxon. 

Ex.:  5uc^^  <fuhs  +  fox  ;  ^u^^  <  hihs-boum,  +  box;  fed^g  <  sehs  + 
six ;  5ld^fe  <  aJise,  +  axle  ;  5lxt  <  acchus  +  axe  (t  is  excrescent). 

b.  Medial  ^  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  is  silent  now,  fe^en,  jte^— fl,  but  d^ 
still  in  ©effect;  fleu^t  —  flie^en ;  ^oc()  — ^o|er;  raud^  still  in  g{aud>tt)erf,  furs, 
—  rau^;  fd^ma^en— ©c^mad^. 

4.  ntb  >  mm,  Eng.  still  mb:  Samm  <  lamp  —  lambes  +  lamb ;  Summer 

<  kumber,  +  to  cumber. 

5.  m  —  n,  Eng.  still  m.  SBefen  <  besem  +  besom ;  ^aben  <  fadem  + 
fathom. 

6.  w  <  bh,  the  labio-labial  bh  has  become  labiodental  v  in  the  standard 
pronunciation  ;  it  has  disappeared  after  ou,  iu  (now  au,  eu) ;  in  a  few  cases 
aw  >  au ;  after  1  and  r  it  became  b,  beginning  in  the  14th  century.  Eng. 
cognates  show  a  vowel  +  some  silent  letter. 

Ex.:  neu  <  niuwe,  +  new;  fd^aucn  <  schouwen  +  show;  grau  <  grd  — 
grdwes,  +  gray ;  t>lau  <bld  —  bldwes  +  blue,  due  to  Fr.  bleu,    ©erben  < 


228  HISTORY   OF  THE   LAKGUAGE.  [491- 

garwen,  +  yare ;  (Sd)tt)alk  <  swalwe,  +  swallow;  ^axU,  a  scar  <  narwe, 
+  narrow,  lit.  "contracted  surface;"  gelb  <  gel  —  gelwes,  +  yellow. 
Some  cases  show  doublets  due  to  levelling  in  favor  of  the  uninflected 
form :  fap  —  falb  <  Tial  —  valwes  +  fallow  ;  tSper-Ung  +  sparrow  — 
^ptxkx  <  sparioaere  +  sparrow-bawk. 

491.  1.  Other  transitions  are  not  general  enough  to  deserve  special  mention.  It 
is  important  to  distinguish  real  phonetic  transitions  and  differences  between  the  two 
periods  in  the  history  of  the  language  due  to  levelling  and  analogy.  The  latter  have 
been  frequently  treated  in  the  comments  upon  the  various  inflections.  See  the  lev- 
elling in  the  declension  of  fern,  nouns,  433;  between  sg.  and  pi.  pret.,  460. 

2.  The  disappearance  of  sounds  by  contraction  ought  also  to  be  con- 
sidered, e.g.,  of  i  for  which  a  merely  orthographical  ^  has  been  substituted 
(see  363,  2)  or  of  e  in  3.  pers.  sg.  pres.  of  strong  verbs  whose  stem  ends  in 
t  as  fc^itt  <  schiltet.  Examples  of  new  sounds  are  e  between  i,  uo,  u  and 
r  as  in  %xmzx  <  tr^re,  ®eicr  <  gir  ;  of  t  (b)  after  final  n  and  s  as  in  ientanb 
<  ieman,  eigentUi^  <  eigenltche,  Dbft  <  obe^,  5txt  <  ackes. 

The  German  word-stock. 

492.  The  following  sources  have  furnished  words  and  fonns  older 
than  any  occurring  in  the  literatures  : 

1.  Runes,  e.g.,  the  famous  inscription  on  the  golden  horn,  which  reads 
ek  hlewagastiz  JiolUngaz  horna  tawido  =  I,  Hlewagastiz  (=  lee-host  ?)  of 
Holstein,  made  (the)  horn. 

2.  The  words  borrowed  by  Fins  and  Laplanders  before  the  race-mi- 
grations, when  the  latter  were  in  contact  with  the  Scandinavians,  the 
former  with  the  Goths  in  the  South,  e.  g.,  "  kunungas,"  "  king." 

3.  Words  and  proper  names  occurring  in  Latin  and  Greek  authors, 
e.g.,  the  name  '*  Teutones"  would  seem  to  go  back  to  a  period  before 
Grimm's  Law  (see  Kluge's  dictionary) ;  glesum  =  amber,  Ags.  glcere,  + 
glass  in  all  Germanic  dialects;  "  alces"  in  Caesar  =  meaning  "  elk,"  O. 
H.  G.  elc7i,  Ags.  eolch;  modern  Eng.  "  elk  "  is  reimported  from  Norse. 

4.  German  has  a  much  larger  Germanic  word-stock  than  Middle  and 
modern  English,  because  through  the  Norman  conquest  the  Komance 
was  engrafted  upon  old  English  and  so  many  old  English  (Germanic) 
words  died  out.  But  compare  the  couplets  calf  —  veal ;  deer  —  venison ; 
sow,  swine  —  pork  ;  hunt  —  chase. 


493]  HISTORY  OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  229 

a.  German,  never  having  had  to  accept  such  a  large  foreign  element,  has  treated 
foreign  words  very  stepmotherly.  English  welcomes  every  stranger,  at  least  our 
large  dictionaries  do,  which  contain  as  much  as  ten  per  centum  of  words  that  are 
no  more  EngUsh  than  they  are  German.  A  German,  seeing  such  a  dictionary  with 
colored  flags,  steam-engines,  animals,  and  what  not,  takes  it  for  an  encyclopedia.  In 
German  a  foreign  word  has  to  undergo  a  long  period  of  probation  before  it  is  accepted 
in  the  language  and  in  the  dictionary.  Foreign  words  are  collected  mostly  in  the 
'■'■FremclwdrterbucJi,''''  i.  e.,  Dictionary  of  foreign  words. 

493.  The  first  larger  influx  of  foreign  words  into  German  came 
througli  contact  with  Roman  civilization,  e.g.,  <Blxa^t,  9)fa^l,  ^(ife,  Md)i, 
ilettc,  Wlixnit,  better,  i^en|ler  ;  the  second  through  Christianization  :  ^ird)e, 
fajlci'en,  ^reuj,  (£ngel,  ^xk\ttx,  9)faffe,  |)rebigen,  and  a  great  many  others. 
These  and  other  foreign  words  of  the  O.  H.  G.  period  were  quite 
thoroughly  Germanized.  They  took  part  in  the  shifting  then  going  on 
and  their  accent  was  put  upon  the  stem-syllable. 

1.  In  later  0.  H.  G.  and  in  M.  H.  G.  the  chief  source,  from  which  foreign 
words  came,  were  the  crusades  and  the  institution  of  chivalry  ;  in  later 
M.  H.  G.  and  early  N,  H.  G.,  the  revival  of  learning  and  the  thirty  years 
war,  e.g.,  ^ala'^t  ^Untc,  Slourni'er,  S^^ron;  in  fact  all  older  nouns  in  -ie'v  and 
verbs  in -ie'ren,  Schiller's  Wallenstein  has  many  foreign  words,  e.g., 
^^rmkuil;  ntakbn'en;  3)anicr,  9)ul»er,  3Jult. 

2.  In  the  last  200  years  Germans  have  taken  up,  as  all  nations  have  done, 
a  large  number  of  words  from  Greek,  Latin  and  the  Romance  languages, 
words  which  the  progress  of  civilization  calls  for.  But  beginning  with  the 
M.  H.  G.  period  German  has  not  been  able  to  change  the  foreign  accent, 
e.g.,  the  verbs  in  -te'retif  even  when  this  ending  is  added  to  German  words  as 
l)ofieren,floIjieren,|aurteren;  ?D^elobet'  or-bte',  Sajlei',  fdataiWn,  23afIa'be,33aIfD'n, 
9)ajle'te  ;  the  many  nouns  in  -te'.  Compare  English  which  changed  in  its 
middle  period  the  accent  of  nearly  all  Norman-French  words,  e.g., 
reason,  season,  melancholy.     Later  te'legraph,  hut  German  2:elegra'p^. 

a.  There  has  sprung  up  since  1870  a  tendency  in  high  official  circles  to  banish  foreign 
words,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  meet  with  much  success.  The  military  system  uses  hun- 
dreds of  them  still. 

The  Postmaster-General  of  the  German  empire  objected  to  Stelep^o'n,  because  he 
could  not  decide  upon  the  gender,  and  so  „gernfpre(^er"  was  made  the  official  word.  A 
letter  to  be  called  for  must  have  on  it  „5PDJWagernb/'not  "poste  restante  "  as  formerly. 

3.  One  more  large  source  of  borrowed  words  has  to  be  mentioned 
which  began  as  early  as  the  15th  century,  viz..  Low  German  and  Dutch 
(also  English).  All  words  that  contain  "  p,"  for  instance,  must  be  either 
foreign  {^a\)pt\,  9)ftnt|er)  or  non-High-German,  because  there  can  be  no  p 


230  HISTORY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  [494- 

in  H.  G.  (see  409,  2).     If  the  words  do  not  come  directly  from  Low 
German,  they  have  been  influenced  by  it  and  taken  L.  G.  form. 

Ex.:  \)]i^m,  \)U^m,  9)o(fe,  ^o^,  glatt,  9)lunber,  Sapjjen,  Words  in  99, 
Ui  (S,Uif  Sgge,  Slogge,  ^laggc,  SBagger,  pgge* 

4.  Notice  the  many  shipping  terms :  Slagge,  S3ort»,  S3oot,  ©priet,  ;2ecf, 
2Bratf,  Steven  (»  =  to).  "Words  in  -c^t  for  ft,  e.g.,  fac^t,  H.  G.  fanft ;  ©c^ac^t, 
H.  G.  ©c^aft ;  (Sd^lud^t  for  (Sc^luft.  The  ending  -^cn  is  Low  and  M.  German  ; 
-kin,  South  German,     ^ett  for  feijl  is  L.  G, 

494.  A  small  group  of  words  was  introduced  twice,  but  at  different 
periods,  e.g.,  9)falj  (O.  H.  G.),  9)ala'ft  (M.  H.  Q.)<palaUum,  but  see  Kluge's 
Diet.  Barge  (0.  H.  G.),  3:artf(|e  (M.  H.  G.)  +  Eng.  target  <  V.  L.  targia  (if 
this  is  not  originally  German  and  belongs  to  the  next  group).  9)ie(obei  was 
really  borrowed,  9)?eIobie  is  a  later  doublet  after  the  many  nouns  in  -ie. 
f^e^len  +  to  fail,  faUieren,  to  fail  (in  business)  <  F.  faillir. 

1.  Compare  Eng.  frail  and  fragile  ;  quite  —  quiet ;  exploit  —  ex- 
plicite.  Many  originally  German  words,  adopted  by  another  language, 
are  borrowed  again  in  a  foreign  form  :  SBagen  —  SSaggon  +  Eng.  wain 
—  wagon;  ©pton  <  fpa'^en  —  German  ©pd'^er;  33{ttouaf  <  5Cw«c^^,  S3etwa(^t ; 
bte  ©arbe,  bic  ©arberobe  +  guard,  +  wardrobe  <  warta,  warten  —  bic  SBartc, 
ber  Sart  +  ward ;  (Stud  <  Ital.  stucco  and  this  from  G.  <Stutf ,  O.  H.  G. 
stuccM. 

2.  Besides  isolated  and  obscure  German  words  a  large  number  of  for- 
eign words  are  exposed  to  "  folk-etymology,"  because  they  are  not  under- 
stood. These  have  been  collected  by  Andresen  in  his  "  deutsche  Volks- 
etymologie."  (See  also  Palmer's  Folk-etymology),  ^eberi^  <  L.  hede- 
racea,  ground-ivy.  Slknteuer  (archaic  spelling  even  5lknbteuer),  <  M.  H.  G. 
aventiure  <  Rom.  aventure. 

3.  SJielfrap,  wolverine  <  li^orse  fjallfr ess =moutSLm-hea.T,  as  if  it  were  a 
great  eater  ;  8unbflut  as  if  from  ©unbc  and  ^lut,  "  the  flood  that  came  on 
account  of  sin,"  but  it  is  from  'Bin  —  meaning  "  ever,"  "  universal"  as  in 
(Singrun,  evergreen.  Ceumunb  as  if  it  meant  wSugenmunb"  or  wCeutemitnb,"  but 
<  hliumunty  Mium,  in  which  -munt  is  suffix,  "  hliu  "  <  the  same  root  as 
laut,  loud  +  Gr.  kIvu.  See  ?!Jlaulir>urf,  400.  Compare  Eng.  causeway  < 
O.  Fr.  ehaucie  <  L.  calciatam  {viam) ;  country-dance  <  counter-dance, 
Fr.  contredanse. 

Hundreds  of  examples  will  be  found  in  Andresen  and  Palmer*8  collections.  The 
words  in  494,  494, 1,  have  never  been  collected. 


496]  WOKDl'OBMATION.  231 


D.    WORDFORMATIOK 

This  chapter  does  not  contain  a  complete  German  etymology.  It  aims  merely  at 
giving  a  brief,  practical  survey  of  the  derivation  of  German  words  for  students  who 
know  a  little  English  and  Latin.  A  knowledge  of  the  older  forms  of  some  Germanic 
dialects  cannot  be  expected  from  the  student.  For  practical  reasons  only,  the  follow- 
ing subdivisions  of  the  chapter  are  made. 

495.  We  may  distinguish  four  ways  of  forming  and  deriv- 
ing words  : 

1.  By  ablaut  without  derivative  suffix,  see  496,  1,  3. 

2.  By  suffixing  some  element  which  was  once  perhaps  an 
independent  word. 

3.  By  prefixing  such  element. 

4.  By  composition  of  independent  words. 

496.  The  pronouns  have  roots  peculiar  to  themselves  and  many  adverbs  are  formed 
from  the  pronominal  roots.  Nouns  (that  is,  substantives  and  adjectives)  and  verbs 
had  probably  the  same  roots,  though  it  is  customary  to  speak,  in  contrast  to  pronomi- 
nal roots,  only  of  verbal  roots,  from  which  nouns  were  formed  later.  We  count  as 
primitive  all  strong  verbs  and  those  nouns  which  have  no  apparent  derivative  suflSx. 
From  a  4/b'xnd',  in  which  x  represents  the  vowel  that  is  to  appear  according  to  the 
various  ablaut-grades,  both  nouns  and  verbs  were  formed.  In  G.  T  this  root  would 
be  bxnd.  It  furnished  binden,  band,  gebunden,  fca§  25anb,  ber  iBunb,  bev  93anb,  ia§ 
93unb  (for  93iinbel).  Both  nouns  and  verbs  had  their  stem-suffixes,  of  course.  These 
made  them  into  words.  Roots  are  to  the  etymologist  what  x,  y,  z  are  to  the  mathe- 
matician. They  are  something  unreal  and  abstracted  from  the  actual  phenomena  of 
languages.  No  one  ever  spoke  in  roots.  In  a  word  we  distinguish  the  stem  and  the 
inflections.  The  stem  minus  the  stem-sufflx  is  the  root.  Of  every  root,  noun  and 
strong  verb  are  not  now  extant,  for  instance,  (teB,  SoB,  but  weak  verbs  by  means  of 
the  suffix  70— >,  were  formed  from  the  same  root,  I.  E.  Vlxub\  G.  T.  Vixub,  e.  g., 
(g)tau6en,  loten.  x  appears  as  e—i  in  lieB,  SieBc  <  lioba,  *leub-  ;  as  a  in  (g)IauBett,  (er)Iau 
Ben  ;  it  disappears  in  2oB,  loBen,  the  weakest  or  zero  stage  of  ablaut.    See  394. 

1.  Formed  by  ablaut  alone,  we  consider  strong  verbs,  nouns  of  the  same  roots  and 
nouns  from  roots  that  may  have  no  strong  verb  extant. 

2.  The  stem-suffix  may  have  been  ojo,  i,  w,  djd  (fern.),  etc.  We  are  inclined  to  look 
upon  the^'o-stems  as  derivatives  because  they  suff"ered  umlaut,  e.g.,  93urge,  (Sef^flfe. 
There  is  some  reason  for  this  because  jo,  jd,  wo,  wd  are  not  primary  stem-suffixes,  but 
for  our  purposes  there  is  no  harm  in  confounding  the  primary  and  secondary  suffixes. 


232  WORDFORMATIOK — SUBSTAN^TIVES.  [497- 

3.  Examples  of  tlie  derivation  of  verbs  and  of  substantives  by  ablaut 
alone. 

I.  ablaut-series:  Ui^m,  ber  S3i§;  xnd),  ^tih,  II.:  [(^lic^en,  ba^  ©c^lo§, 
ber  ©(^lu§;  triefen,  ber  Zxopf,  bie  3:raufe;  ba^  ^od),  bie  Sutfe,  III.:  fi^wimmcn, 
ber  @c()t»amm,  ber  ©umpf  (?),  bie  <o^wemme;  ber  (Sd)lunb,  ber  Oling.  IV.:  krgcn, 
ber  Serg,  bie  Surg,  ber  23itrge  ;  [(fatten,  fd>ellen,  ber  Sc^all,  V.:  Qthn,  bie  ®abe 
(rather  gSa),  QtU  or  gak  (adj.).  VI.:  graven,  ta^  ®xab,  bie  ®rube;  i<^  mup, 
ber  ^a|n,  ba^  ^u^n. 

To  the  G.  T.  a  —  6  series  :  t|un,  get^an,  bie  3:^at,    See  476,  2. 

Derivation  of  Substantives 

497.  Derived  by  a  late  ablaut,  also  directly  from  a  weak 
verb. 

Ex.:  !Der  ©c^unb  <  f(|inben,  =  refuse ;  ber  23efe^l  <  befe|len;  ber  ^anbei  < 
lanbeln  ;  bo^  D^jfer  <opfern  ;  ber  Strger  <  cirgern,  Feminines  in  -e  :  bie 
Sinbe  +  windlass  <  toinben;  bie  i^al^re  +  ferry  <  vern  <faran. 

498.  Derivation  by  Vowel-Suffixes: 

1.  e  <  i  formed  from  adjectives,  all  feminine,  e.g.,  ®r5pe  <  gro§;  |)o^e 
<  :^od^  ;  ©c^one  <  fd)on;;  Salbe  <  kib  (now  only  adverb) ;  ®iite  <  gut  — 
guoti  <  guot.    i  produced  umlaut. 

2.  e  <  i  <jo  ^irte  <  |)erbe. 

3.  ei  <  *e  <  Komance  ^e,  ia,  always  with  chief-stress 
upon  it,  at  first  only  in  foreign  words,  then  spreading  very 
rapidly  in  N.  H.  G. 

It  is  attached  most  frequently  to  nouns  and  verbs  ending  in  -el,  -er, 
-en,  so  that  the  ending  was  felt  to  be  -erei,  e.  g.,  3aukrei',  5lrjenei',  ^euc^elei, 
Sagerei,  It  denotes  also  a  place  of  business  :  2)ru(feret,  SSatferei.  It  im- 
plies a  slur,  Surillerei,  ^inberei. 

4.  ie  only  in  foreign  words.  It  is  the  later  form  of  ia,  ie, 
and  the  nouns  were  formed  after  i  had  become  ei. 

Ex.:  5ljlronomie',  ®e^ogra))^ie',  S;^e"ologie',  etc.  -ie  has  crowded  out  the 
older  -ei,  or  they  appear  together  with  a  difference  of  meaning.  9)?elobci 
—  SJJelobie,  both  mean  "melody  " ;  9)artei  =  party,  faction  —  9>artie  =  game, 
match,  company,  excursion  ;   ^^^antafei  -f  fancy,  —  9)^<intafte  +  phantasy. 


500]  WOEDFORMATIOK — SUBSTANTIVES.  233 

Dbrivatton  by  Consonant  Suffixes. 
499.    Liquids  and  their  combinations. 

I,  generally  el  <  O.  H.  G.  ul  (al),  iL  il  produces  umlaut. 
It  is  weak  or  unaccented.  +  Eng.  le,  +  L.  -ul-us.  Majority 
of  substantives  are  masculine. 

Ex.:  1.  I  <  ul,  al :  ber  ©ta^l,  ba^  «8eil,  maul,  bie  ©ede. 

3.  eU<  ul,aJ):  ber  Sanbel,  sJKangel  92akl,  (B^mM,  ©attel,  9?ebel;  bie  f^acfel, 
©urgel,  ^rnytl,  ^afeU  ©c^aufeL 

3.  el  <  ^?.  Most  of  them  denote  means  and  instruments  like  the  fem- 
nines  <  ul,  al. 

Ex.:  ber  SBeutel,  Siittcl  (  +  beadle),  Sijfel,  tegel  +  cudgel  (?),  ©c^luffel, 
^rmel,  BuQel^    These  are  very  numerous. 

4.  el,  +  Eng.  -le,  sign  of  diminutives,  <  ila,  Hi.  .Neuter  gender.  A 
S.  German  favorite  from  old  times,  now  le,  I,  see  Goethe's  famous  ©c^weij* 
erlieb. 

Ex.:  33iinbel,  SSiid^el,  0itnbel.    Proper  names:  ^rtebel,  Bac^erl. 

5.  el  in  foreign  words  :  bie  Drgel  <  V.  L.  organa  ;  Ztufd  <  didl3o?ioc  ; 
ta^  ©iegel  <  L.  sigiUum ;  ber  (£fel  <  L.  asinus ;  ber  ^iimmel  <  L.  cumi- 


500.     t  combined  with  other  suffixes. 

1.  with  s  in  fel  (weak  accent),  fal  (secondary  accent)  <  sal,  is  +  al, 
generally  producing  umlaut.  Gender  prevailingly  neuter,  but  also  a 
few  fem.  and  very  few  masc. 

Ex.  of  -fel:  ber  2Be(^fel  ba^  0latfel,  n^erHeiBfel.  -f^acffel. 

Ex.  of  -fal:  bag  ©c^icffal,  bag  2ah\a\,  hai  (Sc^eufal,  bie  Saumfal,  bie  ^rii&faL 

Some  have  double  gender. 

2.  -leitt  <  U  +  in,  secondary  accent,  very  numerous,  produces  umlaut, 
noun  always  neuter.   See  493,  4.    Now  only  in  solemn  diction  and  poetry. 

Ex. :  ^inblein,  Cammlein,  SWagblein,  ©o^nlein,  etc.  -eleven  is  rare :  SBiic^eld^en, 
F.  3779. 

3.  -ling  <  ul,  U  +  ing,  +  Eng.  -ling,  weak  accent,  often  with  a 
depreciative  force.  Its  second  element  was  at  first  only  added  to  nouns 
in  -1,  then  -ling  became  the  suffix. 


234  WORDFORMATIOIS^— SUBSTANTIVES.  [501- 

Ex.:  trembling,  ^^inblrng  +  foundling;  Siingling  +  youngling;  SBi^ling, 
!Dttumlmg;  SD^ictling,  hireling;  ©dugltng  ^-  suckling;  ©c^o^Ung,  BwiHing. 

a.  -lingen  (en  is  Dative  pi.)  forms  many  names  of  places,  |)amelin9enr 
©ra^elingen. 

4.  ler  <  I  +  cr  is  a  quite  modern  suffix.  For  er,  see  507, 1.  It  started 
with  nouns  that  came  from  verbs  in  -eln  or  nouns  in  -el. 

Ex.:  ^iinfller  <  fitnfleln ;  8c^mei(|ler  <  f(|mei(^eln  ;  but  |>au^ler  <  ^aua^ 
Stifc^lcr  <  %\\^.    Implies  a  sliir,  e.g.y  9lec§tler  <  fHec^t.   Comp.  Eng.  hostler 

<  hostel. 

501.  em,  m,  <m,  en  <  em.  Of  these  m,  en  are  unaccented 
and  form  no  syllable ;  -em  has  weak  accent,  (xva  has  second- 
ary. <  O.  H.  G.  m,  um,  am,  +  Eng.  m,  om.  For  em  >  en, 
see  490,  5. 

"Ex. :  ber  S3aum,  +  beam ;  Slraum,  +  dream  ;  B^um  +  team ;  <S^t»arm 
+  swarm  ;  ber  5ltem  (Dbem,  the  biblical  form),  S3robem  ;  bcr  23oben,  ber 
SSufeitf  ber  t^aben,  bcr  S3efen  ;  ber  Sibant,  ber  SSrofam,  in  which  am  has  been 
restored  in  place  of  older  -em.  ba^  SBtttum  belongs  here,  but  turn  has 
crept  in  for  older  "  widem,"  as  shown  in  the  verb  Wibmen. 

m  is  a  suffix  in  -tum  <  Vd'a,  see  515,  5. 

502.  en,  n,  <  O.  H.  G.  an,  in  +  Eng.  en,  n,  on,  in. 

Ex. :  ber  2)orn,  +  thorn;  ^afen,  +  haven;  ba^  ^orn,  +  corn;  ba^  3et(!^en, 
+  token,  ber  S)e9en,  +  thane.  Oiegen.  +  rain ;  Sagen,  +  wain,  wagon. 
Often  lost  in  G.,  compare  ber  ^alt,  +  raven  ;  bie  Solfe,  +  welkin  ;  ^\x^t,  + 
kitchen ;  ^ette,  +  chain,  en  of  inf.  is  lost  in  English.  In  G.  en  has  crept 
into  the  Nominative  and  changed  the  inflection,  see  435,  2.  In  some  cases, 
e.g.,  ^orn,  3orn  +  Ags.  torn,  n  is  the  participial  suffix  -wo,  see  453,  1. 

1.  The  -en  of  the  weak  declension  really  belongs  here,  since  it  forms 
nouns  denoting  the  agent,  for  instance,  from  verbs,  WtiXi,  ber  S3ote,  bee 
aSoten.     But  we  feel  it  now  as  an  inflectional  ending.     See  432. 

-ner  is  not  a  real  suffix.  Compare  ler,  500,  4.  In  Sftebner  n  belongs  to 
the  stem  <  redina,  redinon.    In  others  n  is  added  by  analogy  :  Olodner 

<  ®Iotfe;  ^ir^tter<mr(^e.  ^i^ximx  <  portenarius  ;  ©olbner  <  soldenarius, 
Solb. 

2.  en  <  ill,  a  now  rare  diminutive  except  in  composition  in  -lein,  -c^en. 
Ex. :  baa  ^iitlen  (i^olen)  +  filly,  foal  ;  ©c^jvcln,  +  swine  <  G.  T.  s\i ;  ha^ 
MUn  for  titd^Iein  +  chicken  <  from  the  same  stem  as  "  cock." 


006]  WORDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES.  235 

503.  ni^,  niff-,  forms  neuter  and  fern,  nouns,  generally 
abstract  ones  denoting  existence  and  condition,  sometimes 
place,  +  Eng.  -ness. 

Generally  from  noun  and  verb  stems,  but  also  from  adjectives:  bie 
SBilbniiS  <  Wilb,  ^inflerni^  <  ftnjier.  It  represents  now  older  -niss-  and 
-nuss-,  Go.  -Mossus,  and  generally  produces  umlaut,  -niss,  -nuss  are 
compounded  oi  n  +  issi,  issa  and  n  +  ussi.  * 

Ex. :   baa  SSegrobnia,  ©efanpi^f  SJermac^tnia  ;   btc  erlautni^,  ^enntnia, 

504.  tn,  inn-  forms  fem.  nouns,  denoting  females,  from 
masc.  <  M.  H.  G.  in,  in,  inne  <  O.  H.  G.  innd,  tn,  +  L.  ina 
in  regina. 

Ex.:  ®ott,  ®otttn  ;  %\x^^,  r^iid^jln  +  vixen;  |)annotteraner,  |>anttOi)cranerin. 
Very  numerous.  Not  extant  in  Eng.  except  in  vixen,  Ags.  fyxen.  To 
be  translated  by  "  female,"  "  she-,"  "  lady-." 

1.  -in  has  become  (e)n  and  is  attached  to  surnames  having  the  force  of 
the  more  elegant  ^rau  + surname  without  suffix,  e.g.,  bie  9)?Mern  instead 
of  grau  SP'iutter,  bie  Spann^afen  instead  of  grau  ©pann^afe. 

505.  -nb,  ent),  (ant),  ant),  really  participial  suffix  (see  453), 
+  Eng.  -end. 

Ex. :  ber  ^reunb  +  friend ;  f^einb  +  fiend  ;  SBeiganb,  champion  ;  |)eitanb,  + 
Heliand,  Saviour  ;  Sealant,  but  the  cognate  ant  is  foreign  and  has  chief- 
stress,  e.g.,  ?P?ufifa'nt/  9)iint|^ra'nt.  No  participial  ending  in  ber  Sl^enb,  ber 
eiefa'nt. 

506.  -ng,  -ing,  -ung,  <  older  ing,  ung,  -f  Eng.  ing,  ng^ 
weak  accent. 

Ex.:  ber  |)aritt9  +  herring;  ber  ©emitting  +  shilling;  ba«  5Wefftttg,  brass^ 
Ags.  mdsling. 

1.  n  is  lost  in  ^iinig,  +  king  ;  ber  ^Jfenntg  (<  pfenninc)  +  penny. 

2.  ung  forms  numerous  fem.  nouns  from  verbs.  Like  Eng.  ing  they 
denote  mostly  action.  The  suffix  is  gaining  ground.  But  Eng.  nouns  in 
ing  are  frequently  best  translated  into  German  by  an  infinitive.  Ex.: 
bie  ©rfa^rung,  ©ilbun^f  Beitung  +  tidings,  5lnfertigun(i  4-  manufacture;  2Jer^ 
bampfungf  evaporation,  etc.    Riding  +  ba^  9ieiten;  building,  baS  ^auea. 


236  WOEDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES.  [507- 

3.  ing  and  mo,  +  er  and  en  form  many  patronymics  and  names  of  places : 
Sl^uringeit;  SJJeininQen,  S^iuiilringeu,  9)?D^rungen,  ^ornung,  9?iklungcn,  3)iero»mger, 
Ba^rlnger,  £ot|irmger.    For  er  (see  507,  2).    -en  is  originally  dative  pi. 

507.  -er  is  of  various  origin  s. 

1.  It  denotes  the  agent,  <  ere  <  cere  <  dri,  +  Eng.  er,  or, 
ary,  -|.  Lat.  -arius. 

It  is  attached  to  both  nouns  and  verbs  and  is  preceded  by  umlaut  as  a 
rule. 

Ex.:  Baubercr,  tdmmerer,  ©c^uler,  fftitttx,  ©c^netber,  Oleiter,  Slanjer.  Very 
numerous. 

a.  Borrowed  words  not  denoting  the  agent :  Bentner,  <  L.  centenarius 
+  centenary,  a  hundred  weight;  S^ric^ter  <  late  L.  tractarlus  (?),  funnel. 

2.  -er  denotes  origin  and  home,  attached  to  names  of  places 
and  countries.     Used  as  an  adj.  it  does  not  vary. 

It  was  originally  a  Genitive  pL,  but  of  the  same  origin  with 
the  preceding:  3:t)uringer,  Berliner,  SBiener,  ©djweiger  ^dfe* 

3.  -er  without  any  particular  force,  and  words  with  it  are 
looked  upon  as  primitive  <  /*,  ur  {ar),  ir^  -\-  Eng.  r,  er,  re,  + 
I.-E.  -ro-. 

Ex. :  Der  %dtx,  jammer,  ©ommer,  Conner;  Me  %Ux,  geber,  %thx, 
(Sd)ulter;  ta^  %\xiiix,  Seter,  ^Setter,  ©ilber,  SBajfer. 

4.  -ier  in  foreign  words,  e.  g.,  ter  (£ai)aUer,  33arHer,  is  iden- 
tical with  er  sub  1,  but  is  of  Romance  form,  <  L.  -arius. 

For  -er  as  a  sign  of  pi.,  see  431. 

508.  Su£ax  -ter,  t)er. 

1.  <  tar,  forms  names  of  relationship  +  Eng.  ter,  ther,  <  I.-E.  -t-r. 
It  is  unaccented.    Ex.  ber  SJater,  ©ruber,  bie  9)lutter,  Sc^wefler,  Soc^ter. 

2.  <  tara,  tra,  fira  +  Eng.  ter,  der.  Denotes  Instrument.  Not  numer- 
ous, unaccented.      +  L.  trum,  G.  rpov,  rpia. 

Ex.:  itlafter,  cord;  bie  Setter  +  ladder;  ba^  ©elacbter  +  laughter ;  Saflcr  < 
lahstar,  lastar  <  lahan,  to  blame.     In  the  last  word  -ster  is  secondary 


511]  WORDFOEMATION — SUBSTANTIVES.  237 

suffix.     It  appears  also  in  bcr  ^amjler,  badger ;  tie  Sifter,  magpie,  which 
are  of  doubtful  origin.    2)a^  ^enjler  <  Lat.  fenestra. 

t>er  (ter)  as  comparative  suffix,  see  530. 

g,  i,  i^,  ^» 

g  and  i,  Eng.  g  and  k,  it  is  difficult  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  stem.  Nouns 
ending  in  them  must  be  considered  primitive. 

509.  -id),  sometimes  spelt  -ig,  forms  a  few  masc.  nouns. 
It  represents  M.  H.  G.  -ech  and  -ich  <  uh,  ah  and  ih  <  uh, 
ak,  ik  -h  Eng.  -ock,  -k.     See  489,  5. 

Ex.:  ber  SBottic^  (+  buttock),  ber  ^aMc^(t) "+  hawk;  ^rant(|  +  crane; 
%\iM),  2;eppic^;  ba^  0ieiftc^,  Oieifig,  brushwood;  ber  Sletttg  (-tc^)  +  radish  <  L. 
radic-em;  ^o\^  <  M.  H.  G.  mol,  +  mole,  but  means  lizard,  ber  (Sfftg 
(ig  for  ic^),  (  +  Eng.  acid)  <  L.  ac^^ww,  through  *atecum{f).  Oiabt'^c^en  is 
of  later  importation.  Der  ^ajtg,  ^afid),  does  not  belong  here,  but  <  kevje 
(>  kefge)  <  L.  cavea. 

1,  -td^t  =  i(^  +  tf  for  which  see  512,  2,  forms  a  number  of  neuter  nouns 
denoting  fullness,  plenty,  frequency.  Late  suffix  of  15th  century.  1)a(5 
2)tcfic^t,  +  Eng.  thicket  (but  -et  is  Romance) ;  ba(3  ^i^xx^i,  sweepings  ;  bai3 
9lo^ri(^t,  reeds.    2)er  |)abic^t  (see  above). 

510.  -d)en  forms  the  common  neuter  diminutives  and  has 
crowded  out  -lein  in  the  spoken  language.     See  493,  4. 

Compounded  of  tc^,  see  above,  and  n  <  in,  in,  see  502,  2.  Always 
produces  umlaut.  Has  weak  accent,  +  Eng.  kin.  Ex.:  \i<xi  ^Hm^txi,  + 
manikin ;  2ammd)en,  +  lambkin ;  Siirmdjen,  2Jtab(^en,  ^vX^tn. 

^/  i,  h  \f  f** 

511.  1.  -t-  +  Eng.  -th,  <  G.  T.  -'th-   <  I.  E.  -'t-. 

Ex.:  2)er  3:ob,  +  death  ;  9)?uiib,  +  mouth ;  ba^  (bie)  2)?a|b,  +  aftermath ; 
bie  33ubef+  booth  ;  bie  S3urbe,  burthen.  Not  numerous  in  German.  Where 
Engl,  forms  abstract  nouns  in  -th,  from  adjectives  generally,  G.  forms 
the  same  in  -e :  SBcirme,  warmth  ;  Slreue,  truth;  3:iefe,  depth. 

2.  -te  <  -ida,  -idd,  unaccented;  -ot),  -ote,  -at,  <  -ota,  -ofi, 
-uotij  secondary  accent,  form  neuter  and  fern,  nouns. 


238  WORDFORMATIOl^ — SUBSTAI^TIVES.  [512- 

Ex.:  2)ie  ^rentbe,  greube,  ©ebcirbe,  Bterbe,  Segierbe ;  ba^  ®etreibe  <  ge- 
tregede  <  gitragida,  what  is  born  on  tlie  fields,  crops,  grain.  Da^  ®du6be, 
®ebdube,  ©emctlbe. 

a.  2)a«  ^leinob,  jewel;  bie  ©inobe  due  to  folk-etymology  after  Dbe,  desert, 
then  wilderness  =  solitude,  lone-ness.  2)er  9)ionat  +  month  <  mdnot;  bi? 
|)eimat,  +  home,  native  land ;  ber  Bierat;  ornamentation.  But  ^etrat,  mar 
riage  <  hi  <  Mw  +  rat.  2){e  Slrmut  belongs  here,  its  ut  <  uoti,  O.  H.  G 
armuoti.  SBermut,  +  Eng.  wormwood,  has  this  sufiix,  but  its  root  ir 
doubtful.     For  -at  in  foreign  words,  see  163, 1. 

512.  -t  forms  numerous  fem.  nouns  and  a  few  masculines, 
+  Eng.  t  when  preceded  by  surd  spirants,  see  412, 2,  <  origi- 
nal t. 

Ex. :  bie  ^raft  +  craft;  bie  ?S«a(^t  +  might;  bie  3:rtft  +  drift;  bie  diudjt  + 
flight;  ber  ^rojl  +  frost;  ber  ®eijl  +  ghost;  ber  ®afi  +  guest;  bie  9)?a)l,+  mast 
(of  animals) ;  ®ift,  +  gift ;  ®ruft  -f-  crypt. 

1.  This  -t  forms  other  nouns,  but  it  then  corresponds  to  Eng.  d,  rarely 
th  ;  mostly  <  I.-E.  -t-  before  the  accent,  with  which  the  suflax  of  the 
weak  past  participle  is  identical  (see  453, 1) :  bie  ?^urt  +  ford ;  ber  2Bart 
+  ward ;  ©aat,  +  seed ;  S^at,  +  deed ;  bie  glut,  +  flood  ;  bie  33liite,  bloth; 
bie  ©tdtte,  <Stabt,  +  stead;  ber  ^ut,  +mood  ;  bie  2Kut,  +  wood  (mad). 

2.  Notice  the  excrescent  t,  which  the  many  nouns  ending  in  a  spirant  + 1 
encouraged,  e.g.,  ber  ©aft  +  sap;  bie  Slrt  +  axe  ;  ba^  D^  <  obes;  in  -fc|aft 
+ -ship, -scape (?).  After  -c^,  see  509.  1.  In  foreign  words,  e.g.,  ber 
9)ala'|l,  +  palace ;  ^<x);)%  +  pope ;  ^JJorajl,  +  morass. 

3.  -f^  in  ilunft  <  fomteti,  SBritnfl  <  brennen,  ®un|!  <  gonnen  is  not  clear.  To 
call  it  "euphonic"  does  not  explain.  Sfrjt  <  O.  H.  G.  arzat  <  late  L. 
archiater,  but  phonetically  not  quite  clear.  2)ie  9)?agb,  5Waib  +  maid  < 
M.  H.  G.  maget,  meit  has  the  sufiix  b-t,  <  G.  T.  th,  derived  from  a  masc. 
magus,'*\>oyy 

513.  i,  \-  is  rare,  +  Eng.  s,  <  is-,  es-, 

Ex.:  %h^^  +  fiax;  Suc^^,+  fox;  !8uc^«  +  lynx  (?);  bie  STdjfe,  +  axle; 
bie  ^iilfe,  pod  ;  ber  ^xtH  <  crebe^e  +  crayfish,  due  to  popular  etymology, 
as  if  *'  cray-fish'* ;  bie  S3remfe,  brake;  bie  ^ormffe+ hornet;  bie  ©ansJ  +  goose. 

514.  f(^  is  of  various  origins,  but  generally  inseparable. 

<  isk-  comes  the  frequent  adjective  suflfix  -f^  +  Eng.  ish,  sh,  e.g.,  ber 
2)?enfc^  <  O.  H.  G.  mennisko,  an  adjective  ;  ber  %xoi^  +  frog  (see  Kluge) ; 


515]  WORDFORMATION— SUBSTANTIVES.  239 

aSelfc^  +  welsh.     In  ^irf(S^  +  hart,  fc^  <  s,  j.     In    ttrfd^c  +  cherry  < 
^ceresia  fc&  <  s.     See  525,  4. 

a.  -fc^c  is  added  to  surnames  to  denote  Mrs.,  but  is  quite  colloquial,  bie  JHcin^arbtfii^e 
for  grau  SReinl^arbt,  bie  Sanbwe^rfc^e  for  grau  Sonbtt)e:^r. 

Nouns  Derived  by  Nominal  Suffixes,  which  can  be  Traced  to 
Independent  Words  still  Extant  in  the  Older  Germanic 
Dialects. 

For  earlier  periods  of  the  langiiage  this  derivation  would  therefore  properly  come 
under  the  head  of  wordcomposition, 

515.  The  suffixes  are:  -^ett, -feit, -rict), -fd)aft, -twm.  They  all 
form  abstract  fern,  nouns,  chiefly  from  substantives  and  adjec- 
tives, except  those  in  -rid)  and  -turn,  and  have  secondary  accent. 

1.  -l^eit  +  Eng.  -hood, -head.  <  O.  H.  G.  heit,  Ags.  had,  meaning  char- 
acter, nature,  rank.  In  a  few  nouns  it  means  "  a  hody  of,"  and  has  collec- 
tive force.  Very  frequent :  bie  Sret^eit  ;  ©ott^eit  +  godhead  ;  ^inb^eit  + 
childhood  ;  9)?enf(||eit,  mankind ;  S^rijlen^eit,  Christendom. 

2.  -feit  composed  of  -^eit  and  the  adjective  suffix  -ec  or  ic,  to  which  it 
was  attached  in  M.  H.  G.  First  ec-heit,  ic-heit  (>  echeit,  icheit)  > 
ekeit,  ikeit  >  keit,  feit.  -feit  is  attached  only  to  adj.  in  -6ar,  -er,  -ig,  -lic^ 
and  -fam.    Very  numerous. 

Ex.:  bie  2)anfbarfeit,  Sitelfeit,  ^eiterfeit,  ©ttigfeit,  ?5reunbli(^feit,  ©infamfeit. 
The  derivation  from  adjectives  in  -ig  is  so  common,  that  -igfeit  was  looked 
upon  as  the  suffix  and  adjectives  in  -Io<3  and  feaft  only  form  nouns  in  this 
way  :  bie  ©^rloftsfeitf  (Strafloftgfeit,  Ciigen^aftigfeit,  ^ranf^aftigfeit.  In  -ig-feit  ig 
has  heen  restored  in  many  nouns,  after  it  had  helped  form  feit,  e.  g. , 
©u§igfeit  <  suezekeit;  ©wigfeit  <  ewecheit.    See  489,  5. 

a.  Mark  the  distinction  sometimes  made  between  nouns  in  -igfeit,  -feit  and  -:^eit  from 
the  same  adj.  CDie  5lletntgleit  =  trifle,  bie  illein^eit  =  littleness ;  bie  5Keutgfeit  =  a  piece 
of  news ;  bie  SJeu^eit  =  newness ;  bie  9JeinUc^feit,  cleanliness ;  bie  Dtein^ett,  purity, 
clearness. 

3.  -ric^  +  Eng.  -ric,  -ry  <  0.  H.  G.  rich  +  L.  rex,  regis,  forms  a  number 
of  proper  names.  Denotes  ■"  powerful,"  "  commanding."  Ex.:  aBiiterid), 
blood-thirsty  person,  tyrant ;  i^riebric^  +  Frederic  ;  ^einrid)  +  Henry  ;  2Be^ 
geridi,  a  plantain,  lit.  "  ruler  of  the  way." 

a.  -xx6)  appears  in  the  names  for  certain  male  birds.  The  oldest  is  Gntcric^  +  drake  < 
endrake.  This  is  certainly  not  identical  with  the  above  -rich  ;  it  may  have  been  shaped 
after  it  on  account  of  antreche,  O.  H.  G.  antrahho,  which  cannot  go  back  to  -rich-. 


240  WORDFORMATIOK — SUBSTANTIVES.  [616- 

©anferii^  +  gander,  StauBerid^,  cock-pigeon,  are  N.  H.  G.  forms  after  (Snteri(^,  <  ©anfer, 
2au6er  <  Oang,  SauBe.  %h\)nvi^,  ensign,  <  older  G.  venre,  faneri,  has  -ic^  by  analogy, 
ga^nbric^  may  be  due  to  D.  mndric  (Wiegand)  <  %a^m,  flag.  By  folk-etymology  bet 
^iimii),  from  L.  hederacea. 

-reic^  comes  under  composition. 

4.  -[(i)aft -i- Eng.  -ship,  shape  <0.  H.  G.  scaft,  meaning  character,  being, 
creature  ;  itself  a  derivative  by  t  <  G.  T.  Vskap,  from  which  to  shape, 
f(|affen.     Forms  mostly  fem.  abstract  nouns  and  a  few  collectives. 

Ex.:  bie  greunbfc^aft  +  friendship ;  ©raffc^aft,  county  ;  Canbfc^aft  +  Ags. 
landscipe,  -f  Eng.  landscape  (scape  due  to  D.  and  Norse  influence) ;  bie  ®e^ 
fanbfd^aft,  embassy  ;  9)riefierf(i^aft,  priesthood  ;  3Jertt)anbf(^aft,  relationship  ; 
©efefffc^aft,  company. 

5.  -turn -f- Eng.  -dom  <  O.  H.  G.  tiu}7n,  M.  and  I^. ;  Ags.  ddm  ilf.  +  Eng. 
doom  =  judgment,  law,  dominion,  power.  It  forms  neuter  nouns  from 
nouns,  but  neuters  and  masculines  from  adjectives.  The  nouns  are 
abstract,  but  many  denote  domain  and  place. 

Ex. :  ba^  ^crjogtum  +  dukedom ;  ^onigtum,  +  kingdom ;  ^eibentum,  -f- 
heathendom ;  ^etligtum,  sanctuary ;  ber  3rrtum,  error,  SRetc^tum  -i-  riches. 

a.  Mark  a  difference  in  meaning  between  nouns  derived  by  means  of  t)cit,  fc^aft,  -turn 
from  the  same  stem:  bie  (Sigen^^eit,  stubbornness,  peculiarity ;  bie  (Sigenj^aft,  quality; 
bag  (Sigentum,  property ;  bie  S^riften^eit  =  Christendom ;  ba§  S^rtftentum  =  Christianity  ; 
bie  93urgerf(^aft,  all  the  citizens ;  baS  33urgertum,  citizenship ;  bie  2Bei6^ett  +  wisdom  ; 
bo§  SEeiStum,  statute. 

Derivation  op  Nouns  by  Means  of  Inseparable  Prefixes. 

516.  The  composition  of  nouns  by  means  of  independent  parts  of 
speech,  such  as  prepositions  and  adverbs,  will  not  be  treated  here  except 
the  composition  by  means  of  those  prefixes,  such  as  bet,  Ur,  etc.,  which  re- 
tained the  strong  form  under  the  noun-accent,  but  wore  down  to  a  weaker 
form  in  the  verb  acxientuation  and  thus  became  "  inseparable.*'  For  the 
principle  of  accent,  see  421.  Whenever  the  prefix  of  a  noun  is  unac- 
cented and  has  weak  form,  the  noun  is  not  old,  but  it  is  late  and  derived 
from  the  verb,  except  in  one  case,  viz. ,  the  prefix  ge-,  g-. 

This  is  really  composition,  but  we  treat  of  the  subject  here  for  convenience. 

1.  91  b  e  r-  has  the  force,  1)  of  o&er-  uBer,  from  Dutch  =  excessive.  It  is 
rare.  3)er  Stberglaube,  superstition,  bie  Slkrac^t;  *' proscriptio  superior" 
STbcrwi^,  conceit,  presumption,  imbecility,  is  M.  H.  G.  dbermtze,  dbewUze, 
in  which  aber  =  abe,  ah.    0.  H.  G.  dwizzi. 


516]  WORDFORMATIOIT— SUBSTANTIVES.  241 

3)  The  force  of  again  toward,  against.  It  is  depreciative  :  ber  5lbcr^ 
wanbel,  forfeit,  back-sliding ;  Slbername,  nick-name ;  bie  5l^erfaat,  second-sow- 
ing;  ber  5lberfatfer=®egenfatfer,  rival  emperor.  In  this  sense  =  after  and 
both  probably  <  «/,  ab  -i — ar  and  -tar  respectively. 

2.  31  f  t  e  r-+  Eng.  after  :  not  the  first,  not  genuine,  second,  retro-,  false  .- 
3)a<3  SlfterMatt,  stipule  (in  botany) ;  bte  5lfterrau[e,  false  muse  ;  bie  9(fterfritif, 
false,  second-hand  criticism ;  5lftertt)ett  =  ^ix&iXOiXi,  posterity ;  3tftermiete, 
subletting. 

3.  51  n  t-  +  Eng.  an-,  a-,  am-  in  answer,  acknowledge,  am-bassador, 
+  L.  ante-,  Gr.  "  avTi."    Force  :  against,  opposite,  in  return,  removal. 

Ex.:  bie  5lnttt>ort, 4- answer  ;  ba^  3lntli^f  face  ;  ber  Slntlapf  absolution  ;  ba^ 
%m\,  office,  court  <  0.  H.  G.  ambaht.  Go.  andbaMi,  and  +  ba7ito,  a  servant, 
Eng.  ambassador,  embassy  <  Romance  forms  <  Low  L.  amhasta  <  0. 
H.  G.  ambaht. 

Unaccented  it  became  etlt  (see  541).  Slnt-  has  in  some  really  old  nouns 
given  place  to  the  ent-  of  verbs,  e.g.,  ber  ©m^fa'ng  for  older  dntvanc. 

4.  S3  e  i-,  6-  rare  as  old  prefix,  but  common  in  modern  compounds,  con- 
sisting of  preposition  +  noun,  +  Eng.  by ;  in  verbs  ht,  +  Eng.  by-,  be-  < 
M,  be  ;  see  Kluge.    Perhaps  related  to  Gr.  dfx(j)t,  L.  arribi. 

Ex.:  ba^  S3eifptel,  example  <  bispel;  bie  S3eic^te,  confession  <  Mhte  < 
bigihte  <  bi  +  jehen ;  ber  S3eif(^laf,  cohabitation  ;  ber  S3eifa§,  -f-  settler,  un- 
naturalized comer ;  S3eifu§,  wormwood.  The  weak  unaccented  form  Bc- 
is  very  common  in  late  derivatives  from  verbs.  In  M.  H.  G.  appear  the 
doublets  Utraht  —  S3etra'c^t  ;  bigraft  —  begraft ;  biziht  —  beziht. 

5.  ^  it  r-  occurs  only  in  one  old  noun,  %m\'^xt^,  mediator,  attorney.  In 
the  18th  century  fur  and  »or  were  used  indiscriminately  and  a  great  many 
compounds  now  have  SJor-  only.     Unaccented  fQtx-  sub  11. 

6.  (£rj-,  -f-  Eng.  arch-,  means  chief,  original,  great- <  V.  L.  arci-  <  Gr. 
dpXL-. 

Ex.:  ber  ®rjMf(^of-i- archbishop  ;  ©rjliigner,  a  great  liar;  ©rjnarr,  arrant 
fool ;  Srjfpieler,  professional  gambler. 

7.  ®e-,  %-,  the  traces  of  its  accent  are  difficult  to  find  even  in  the  oldest 
stages  of  the  Germanic  dialects,  though  there  are  some  in  Ags.  (found  by 
Kluge)  and  in  Go.  There  are  none  left  in  German.  It  is  always  unac- 
cented. <  O.  H.  G.  ga,  gi.  Its  connection  with  L.  cum,  con,  is  generally 
asserted,  but  is  difficult   to  prove.     Has  intensive,  generally  collective 


242  WORDFORMATIO]^— COMPOUKD  NOUNS.  [517- 

force.    Nouns  of  the  form  ®e— e,  <  ga—jo  are  almost  all  neuter  and  very 
numerous.  * 

Ex.:  ber  ®lau6c  +  belief ;  ber  ©efette;  bag  ®Ueb,  bic  ©ebulb,  bic  ®nabe;  bic 
®cfa:|r;  bag®eMube;  ©etreibe;  ©efc^meibe;  ®en)erk;  ©eMrge;  ®e^olse.  ®- 
appears  before  I,  x,  n. 

8.  Wl'x'^-  +  Eng.  mis-.  Force  :  negative,  false,  failure.  For  its  origin 
see  453, 1.  In  M.  H.  G.  still  an  adjective,  now  inseparable,  always  accented 
prefix.  Only  one  compound  with  its  derivatives  retains  misse-,  viz.,  ?Wif== 
fetl^at  +  misdeed. 

Ex  :  Very  numerous  :  ber  SKiphaucS^,  bic  SWipcmte,  ber  SKi^flang,  ber  9)?tp^ 
mut,  ber  SWipgriff. 

9.  U  r  +  Eng.  or-  only  in  "  ordeal "  and  "  ort,"  <  older  us,  ur.  Force : 
origin,  great  age,  great-.  Weak,  unaccented  form  =  er-  in  verbs  and 
their  derivatives,  u  always  long  except  in  Urteil.  bag  Urteil  +  ordeal ;  ber 
Urfprung,  bieUrfunbc;  ber  Urlau:^,  ber  Urgrogyater ;  bie  Urfad^e ;  ber  UrqueU. 

10.  Un  +  Eng.  un-,  of  like  force,  privative,  +  L.  in-,  Gr.  av-,  a-. 
Ex. :  bte  Unart,  ber  Unban!,  bie  Ungunf!,  ber  UnwtHe.    In  ungefal^r  un-  stands 

for  o^n-,  <  dn  gevcere,  but  in  D^nma(|t,  o^n  stands  for  Di^mac^t  <  dmaht, 
containing  the  obsolete  a  privative. 

11.  35 er-,  fr-  always  in  this  weak  form  and  unaccented  like  ®e-. 
Traces  of  early  accent  upon  it  very  rare,  none  now,  +  Eng.  for-.  Rare 
in  older  nouns,  very  common  in  later  nouns  derived  from  verbs,  see  516, 
<  O.  H.  Q.  far,  fir. 

Ex.:  ber  25erlu|l,  bte  SJernunft,  Sre^el  +  Ags.  frcBfele  ;  ^rap  — freffen;  Srad)t 
+  fraught,  freight  (see  Kluge's  Diet.). 

12.  3  e  r  occurs  only  in  nouns  derived  from  verbs.  See  therefore  546. 
Ex.:  bie  Berj^reuung,  Berflorung. 

a.  For  brittel,  wiertel,  see  532, 2.  Sungfcr,  maiden  <Juncfrouwe,  daughter  of  a  noble 
family,  ^unfev,  young  nobleman  +  younker  <junc-herr.  3ungfrau,  virgin,  is  a  modern 
compound.  In  such  words  as  %Wx,  2Bimper,  5Ka(^bar,  ©c^ujier,  and  many  others,  the 
second  elements  are  no  longer  felt ;  they  are  suflxes  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 
See  the  dictionary  for  their  derivation. 

Composition  of  Nouns. 

517.  The  second  element  is  always  a  noun,  in  a  few  cases  an  adjective, 
but  used  as  a  noun.  This  noun  always  determines  the  gender  and  inflec- 
tion of  the  compound.  The  first  element  always  has  the  primary  accent 
the  second  the  secondary  accent.    See  421;  424, 2.   The  first  element  may 


618]  WORDFOKMATION — COMPOUITD  NOUNS.  243 

be  any  other  independent  part  of  speech,  a  noun,  adjective,  verb,  adverb, 
or  preposition. 

Noun  +  Noun. 

518.  The  relation  of  the  component  parts  is  syntactical ;  the  first  ele- 
ment may  stand  in  apposition  to  the  second  or  it  stands  in  case-relation 
to  it. 

In  apposition  :  b<j§  ^immelrcic^,  tie  ©ommerjeit ;  many  names  of  plants  and  trees, 
bet  ?lpfeHJaum,  bie  §eibeI6eeve. 

In  the  G.  relation :  ber  Stugapfet,  bet  tonigSfo^n,  bie  tu^mit(^. 

In  the  D.  relation :  bet  ©^lafttunf,  baS  SEintenfa^,  bie  SEanjftunbc. 

In  the  A.  relation,  including  the  objective  Glenitive  :  bet  SBegwcifet,  ^evjog,  9Sotet« 
tnorbcr. 

In  the  Ablative  relation  of  origin,  material,  cause :  bie  jjreubent^t&ne,  bet  SBefticinb, 
bie  ©tai^tfebet. 

In  the  Instr.  relation,  denoting  instrument,  means,  connection :  bet  Su^tritt,  bet 
§uff^Iag,  bie  Ceimvute. 

In  the  Locative  relation,  denoting  place,  association,  even  time  :  bie  ©a^jluBe,  bo8 
Sa^nfteifc^,  Sagewctt,  bet  gu^folbat. 

a.  The  earliest  method  of  combining  the  nouns  was  that  of  attaching 
the  second  noun  to  the  stem  with  its  stem-suffix,  that  is,  to  the  "theme." 
The  vowels  of  the  stem-sufiixes  became  e  in  M.  H.  G.  or  were  lost.  A 
later  way  was  that  of  joining  the  second  noun  to  the  Genitive  sg.  or  pi. 
of  the  first  noun.  This  way  originated  in  the  relation  of  noim  and  its 
dependent  genitive.  The  sign  of  the  G.  sg.  ^,  ii  was  then  added  also  to 
feminine  nouns,  which  of  course  were  not  entitled  to  it. 

1.  Stem  +  noun.     Composition  proper. 

a.  With  stem-suffix  :  bcr  3;agebieb,  ber  ^ageborn,  baa  S^agetteb,  bie  93abe^ 
retfe,  ber  SBrciutigam,  bie  S'Jac^tigatt,  bie  ©cinfeHume.  See  the  examples  with 
en  sub  2,  since  en  was  originaSy  stem-suffix.    See  502, 1. 

h.  Without  stem-suffix.  Very  numerous  :  ber  2BiIbbieB,  \:Cii  Sagb^orn, 
baa  SBcltmeer,  ^a^  ©arten^aua,  ^^  ^anbwerf. 

2.  G.  sg.  or  plural  +  noun.  Secondary  composition.  Case-endings  : 
(e)a,  er,  en.  en  and  er  were  also  encouraged  by  the  other  cases  in  which 
they  stood,  e.  g.,  N.  and  A.  pi.  and  in  the  other  cases  of  the  sg.  of  masc. 
weak  nouns.  Indeed  (e)a  and  (c)n  were  gradually  looked  upon  as  connect- 
ing elements  between  two  nouns  and  crowded  out  many  compounds  of 
prox)er  composition. 

Ex.:  baa  ©onntagafleib,  baa  2Birta|aua,  ber  Sanbea^err;  ber  ^aufer»erfauf,  bie 
^tnberle^re,  bie  SJJannerwiirbe;  ber  S^ren^ort,  \i(x^  greubenfefl,  bie  SBIumenlcfe,  bcr 
9)almen^aum,  ^eigenkum,  ber  (Si^enwalb,  ber  ^a^nenfporn. 


244  WORDFORMATIOK — COMPOUND  IfOtTNS.  [519- 

3.  ^  between  fem.  noun  +  noun.  This  began  as  early  as  the  12th  cen- 
tury. -«3  is  a  favorite  after  nouns  in  t,  particularly  after  the  suffixes  -t, 
-l^eit  (feit),  -fc^aft  and  -ung  ;  and  the  foreign  nouns  in  -ion  and  -tat. 

Ex.:  ber  ®tHxma^;  ble  ^^rei'^eit^Ue'be,  ^einiat^Uebe ;  ber  ^reunbfd^aft^bote; 
hai  ^ojfnungggluc!  (G.) ;  ber  2Bei^na(^t^mann,  ber  ^oc^jeit^tftg  ;  ba^  3)?i[fion^^ 
Blatt,  bie  Univerjttat^^atte,  ber  Siek^brief* 

Adjective  +  Noun. 

519.  The  adjective  appears  without  stem-suffix,  but  see  522.  The 
relation  of  adjective  and  noun  is  that  of  an  attribute  or  of  apposition. 

Ex.:  bie  ®utt|at,  bie  SBei^na^t,  |>oc^jeit;  ber  Sangkin,  ber  9)?itt(e)n)oc6 ;  bie 
SRittfaften;  bie  Sungfrau,  bie  ©elifuc^t,  bie  ^urjweil;  ber  ®ro§mauI;  ber  S3ofe^ 
wid^t. 

1.  In  many  compounds  the  adjective  is  used  as  noun  and  is  then  in- 
flected, generally  in  the  weak  Q.  pL:  bie  S3linben^,  bie  3;aubfiummenanjlalt, 
ba^  ^ranfett|au§. 

2.  There  is  a  small  group  of  compounds  in  which  the  union  of  the 
elements  is  not  intimate  and  the  adjective  is  inflected,  e.^.,  bie  So^ngewe'ile, 
i^a'ngwei'le  ;  ^o'^erprie'fter,  ber  ^o'^e^rie'jler;  ©el^eimerrat,  ein  ©e^einierrat  (but 
also  uninflected  ber,  ein  ©e^eintrat).  SWi'ttemac^t  is  a  secondary  compound 
for  the  older  mitnaht  +  midnight.    For  their  accent,  see  422,  1. 

520.  1.  NuMEKAL  +  Noun. 

Ex.:  ber  2)reifu§,  ba^  SJierecf,  bie  ©inBeere,  ber  3»eifam))f,  ber  Bwtektf,  bag 
Btt)ielid)t  +  twilight,  bag  ©ieiengejlirn,  bie  ©rfige&urt. 

2.  Adverb  +  Noun. 

Many  of  them  are  formed  from  compound  verbs. 

Ex.:  bie  SBo^If^at,  bie  ^erlunft,  ber  ^ingang,  bie  SBoIIujl,  bie  5Iu§entt)elt,  bie 
^Ric^tanerfennung  (=  non-),  bie  ^Hxt,  ber  %^ott,  ber  ©ingang. 

3.  Preposition  +  Noun. 

The  majority  are  formed  from  compound  verbs.  But  not  a  small 
number  are  made  directly  of  preposition  +  noun. 

Ex.:  bie  Slnjai)!,  ber  5lmI)op,  bie  Slnfprac^e,  ber  5(ufgang,  ber  Seiname,  ber  33ei=' 
trag,  bie  'Dm^fal^xt,  ber  2)ur(^'6ru^,  ber  ^^itrwi^  or  3Jort»i^,  bie  ©egengabe,  bie 
^interlijl,  ber  Snkgrif,  ber  9)?itmcnf(^f  ber  ^a^kmmi,  bag  9?ebcngebaube,  bie  9?ie^ 
berlagc,  bag  D^bbad),  ber  Dberfellncr,  bie  Dkr^anb,  bie  U6ermad>t,  ber  Umfrcig,  ber 
Unterfa^,  bie  Unterwelt,  bie  5Jorh)ett,  ber  23iberwiKe,  ber  Buname,  \)a^  3»)ifc^enfpiel 


522]  WORDFORMATIOK— ADJECTIVES.  245 

4.  Verb  +  Noun. 

Very  numerous.  A  few  with  the  connecting  vowel  -e,  which  repre- 
sents the  suflBx- vowel  of  weak  verbs,  older  6,  e. 

.    Ex.:  ber  (S^ur^unb,  ber  (Sing^ogel,  bie  ©c^reibfeber,  ba<3  Cefebuc^,  ber  2ebe=* 
mann,  bie  9teifeluft,  ber  Seitj^ern.   (See  below.) 

a.  Ostlioff  (see  his  Verbum  in  der  Nominal  Composition)  has  proved  that  these  com- 
pounds are  not  primitive  in  the  I.  E.  languages,  but  that  they  are  originally  com- 
ponnded  of  noun  +  noun,  in  which  the  first  noun  was  felt  to  be,  on  account  of  its  stem- 
suffix,  a  verb-stem,  and  this  led  to  the  formation  of  many  compounds,  in  the  Germanic, 
Greek,  Slavic  and  Romance  languages,  by  analogy.  Thus  Seitftern,  +  lode-star,  does 
not  come  from  leitcn  and  ©tent,  though  meaning  ^leitenber  ©tern,"  but  <M,  H.  G. 
leitestem,  in  which  leite  +  lode  is  a  noun  =  guidance,  direction. 

521.  Compounds  of  more  than  two  words.  The  accent 
deserves  here  special  attention,  see  421;  424,  3. 

1.  Three  words,  but  only  two  parts:  ber  ^el'rat^a'ntrag,  ber  9)?i'tglieb<3fc^et'n, 
bie!I)a'mpf-fc^i^ffa^rt,  steam-navigation,  butX)a'mpff(|tf-fa'^^rt,  steamboat-ride; 
ber  Se'IbjU9^-pla%  ber  ^a'v^mxU-Wxi^^tt  bie  Se'^cn^ijerftc^erung^^^gefe^afc^aft. 

2.  Four  words  and  more.  These  are  not  common,  much  rarer  than 
is  generally  supposed.  Dkr^oIijei'geri(^t(3praftbe^nt,  (3taa't!5fc^ulbentitpng<3= 
fomntiffiD^n<3(iureau,  oflBce  of  the  commission  for  the  liquidation  of  state- 
debts  ;  ©tei'nfo^lenbe^gwerf,  ©encralfelbmarfc^all. 

a.  To  get  a  quick  survey  of  such  a  word,  s  ought  to  bo  inserted  once  at  least  in  the 
first  and  second  words  and  the  last  words  might  begin  with  a  capital  as  in  English. 

6.  The  capacity  of  German  for  forming  such  compounds  is  generally  exaggerated  and 
that  of  English  underrated.  The  custom  of  writing  these  long  nouns  as  one  word  is 
very  bad.  We  might  just  as  well  write  them  so  in  Eng.,  e.  g.^  Fireinsurancecompany^ s- 
office,  and  we  should  have  the  same  compound.  Official  language,  certain  schools  of 
philosophy  and  the  newspaper  are  the  main  sources  of  such  monstrosities.  Moreover, 
the  composition  exists  only  for  the  eye.  When  we  speak  we  do  not  divide  according 
to  words  ;  we  speak  in  breath-groups,  see  Sweet's  Hdbk.,  p.  86-. 

3.  Similar  to  the  compounds  in  520, 4,  are  such  whole  phrases  as  (Ste'l(== 
bid)ei^n,  rendez-vous;  3:|u'nic^tgu't,  ne'erdowell ;  3:au'gem^c^t^,  goodfor- 
nothing. 

Derivation  of  Adjectives. 

The  comparison  of  adjectives,  and  the  past  participles  come  really  under  this  head, 
but  see  438  and  453, 1. 

522.  Adjectives  Formed  by  Ablaut. 

These  may  be  called  primitive.     See  496.     They  fit  into  the  ablaut- 


246  WORDFORMATIOK — ADJECTIVES.  [523- 

series  just  as  substantives  and  verbs  do.  All  liave  lost  stem-suflBxes 
except  the  jo-stems,  still  recognizable  by  the  umlaut  and  generally  by 
the  final  e. 

Ex.:  reif,  jleif,  bicf ;  Ikb,  tief ;  Uinh,  ^o|l,  f(|on,  U^n,  bumm.  With  -e : 
enge*  ja|c,  mttbe,  Bofe,  trage. 

Adjectives  Derived  by  Suffix. 

523.  1.  -el,  see  499,  roots  generally  obscure:  eitel  +  idle;  evil, 
libel;  ebel  (+  Athel-  Ethel);  bunfel. 

2.  -em,  see  501,  rare.     Ex.:  toaxm  +  warm. 

3.  e  r  <  -or,  -r,  rare,  same  as  ar  of  nouns  in  507,  3.  Ex. :  waff er  + 
watchful,  brave  ;  I6ttter  +  bitter  ;  feiter,  lauter,  fc^wanger;  ft^er  <  L.  securus. 

524.  -m,  -n,  see  502.  Very  frequent  and  of  various 
sources,  +  Eng.  en,  n. 

1.  e  n  <  O.  H.  G.  an,  in  a  few  words  of  doubtful  origin. 

Ex. :  e'6en  +  even ;  ftetn,  small  +  clean  ;  grun  +  green ;  f(^on  +  sheen ; 
fetn  +  far ;  rein  <  Vhrl.  It  is  late  in  alfeern  <  alwmre,  lu^txn,  fc^uc^tern, 
from  adj.  in  -er,  <  -ni,  -njo. 

2.  <  in,  in.    Denoting  material,  ''made  of." 

Ex.:  golben  for  older  giilben  +  golden  ;  tt)otten  +  woollen;  feiben,  silken; 
ftlkrn  +  silver;  lebern  +  leather. 

3.  ern<tt  +  er,  due  to  the  influence  of  er  in  such  nouns  as  ©ilber, 
geber  and  of  er  in  the  plural.     Compare  -ler,  ner  in  nouns,  see  500,  4. 

Ex. :  fteinem,  of  stone ;  flac^fern  +  flaxen  ;  tloncrn,  of  clay ;  pljern,  wood- 
en ;  niic^tern  (?),  sober. 

4.  e  n  <  an,  in  <  G.  T.  ~nd  in  all  strong  past  participles.  Some  fifty 
or  sixty  of  these  stand  now  "isolated,"  that  is,  separated  from  the  verb 
still  extant  or  the  verb  is  obsolete.     See  453, 1. 

Ex.:  etgen  +  own  VII.  CI.,  gebtegen  I.  CI.  (old  doublet  of  gebte^en),  pure  ; 
kfc^eiben  VII.  CI.  (old  doublet  of  &ef(|teben  I.  CI.),  modest ;  gelegen,  conven- 
ient (verb  obsolete) ;  ijerlegen,  embarrassed  (v.  obsolete);  er^akn  VI.  CI. 
(doublet  of  er^oben),  lofty  ;  Written  I.  CI.,  mounted  ;  offen  (?),  open  ;  trotfen 
+  dry,  <  '^^druk. 

525.  1.  -ig,  +  Eng.  -y,  represents  now  both  older  -ec, 
-ac  and  -ic.     See  489,  o. 


5261  WORDFORMATIOK — ADJECTIVES.  247 

The  umlaut  codld  occur  only  in  the  adjective  which  had  -ic.  It  is  a 
living  suflBx  and  new  adjectives  are  still  being  formed  with  it  from  any 
part  of  speech  except  verbs. 

Ex.:  traurig,  Muttg,  ^oiuftg,  pittg*  ftJalttg,  gewaltig ;  late  formations  :  ^eutlg, 
^ieftg,  oUq,  bortig.  For  felig,  see  528,  2,  a.  SWanc^  +  many,  <  manec.  Its 
(^  for  9  is  L.  G.(?). 

2.  ig  +  Hc^  =  igUc^,  once  very  common  and  attached  where  there 
was  no  -ec,  -ic.  It  is  now  rather  adverbial,  see  554,  2,  and  rare  in  ad- 
jectives, e.  ^.,  ett)tgU(^,  gnabigUc^. 

3.  -i  (^  t  <  -ehty  -oht,  -ohti,  is  more  common  in  adjectives 
than  in  substantives.     See  509. 

a.  -tg  and  -ic^t  furnish  doublets,  sometimes  with  a  distinction  in  force, 
ic^t  with  i  must  be  due  to  -ig  with  t,  as  it  is  very  late. 

Ex. :  jlctnic^t  +  stony,  tpri(|t,  foolish,  nebelic^t,  foggy,  flac^elic^t,  prickly. 
-i(^t  implies  only  a  slight  resemblance  :  oUt^t,  slightly  oily  —  olig,  oily. 

4.  -t  f  c^,  -f(^  +  Eng.  ish<  older  -isk-,  implies  a  bad  sense  in  contrast 
with  -ltd),  as  in  Eng.  ish  and  like.     See  514. 

Ex.:  finbifc^  +  childish,  HnbUc^  +  childlike;  Mu(e)nf(^  +  boorish,  6auer=' 
lid^,  rustic ;  denotes  origin  :  ^)reu§ifc^  +  Prussian  ;  6atrifc^  +  Bavarian. 
Corresponds  to  -icus  in  adjectives  derived  from  L. :  fomif(^>  logifd),  ^^ilo> 
logif(|.     See  514. 

5.  -e  n  b  in  the  present  participle,  see  453  ;  505. 

6.  -(e)  t,  the  past  participle,  see  453, 1. 

But  notice  those  that  we  no  longer  feel  as  participles  :  tot,  laut,  fait, 
etc.    Later  formations  :  traut,  jart. 

526.  Adjectives  derived  by  the  nominal  suffixes  -b  a  r, 
-^aft,  -lx6>  and  -fam,  wliich  were  once  independent  nouns 
(see  515).    For  accent,  see  424,  1,  b. 

1.  -^6  a  r  <  M.  H.  G.  bcere  <  O.  H.  G.  bdri,  <  the  root  of  the  verb  ge^^aren  + 
Eng.  bear.  Should  have  become  -^ix,  which  really  occurs  in  living  dia- 
lects, but  the  levelling  was  in  favor  of  the  full  form.  Compare  L. 
-fer-,  Gr.  (popoc 

a.  In  meaning  it  corresponds  to  Eng.  -able,  -ible,  -ful.  It  means : 
bearing,  producing,  capable  of,  and  is  attached  only  to  nouns  and  verbs. 


248  WORBFOKMATION — ADJECTIVES.  [526^ 

The  only  adjective  to  which  it  is  attached  is  offcnha'x,  with  the  accent  of 
the  verbs  offen^a'reitf  ge^a'feren. 

Ex.  very  numerous :  trennbar,  separable ;  ^xHx,  audible ;  banfbar, 
grateful;  t^xbax,  honorable.  Ux'hdx  <  M.  H.  G.  urbor,  has  the  weak 
ablaut  like  the  L.  and  Gr.  forms  given  above. 

2.  -^  a  f  t,  a  participle  either  from  the  root  of  l^a^tn  -\-  have, 
ir  L.  capere,  captus  (Kluge). 

a.  It  denotes  "  possessing,"  "  similar  to-,"  "  approaching-."  In  mean- 
ing it  corresponds  frequently  to  Eng.  -y  ( +  G.  ig),  -ful,  -ly.  It  is  attached 
to  nouns,  adjectives  and  verbs  and  is  sometimes  increased  by  -ig. 

Ex.  numerous :  fef)ler^aft  +  faulty  ;  fd)ab^aft,  harmful  ;  leb^aft  +  lively  ; 
fpa9t}aft,  funny ;  \m'^x1)aft,  toaf)x\)a' ftiQ,  truthful,  true :  fc^iiler|aft  +  scholar- 
like, boyish ;  meifler^aft  +  masterly ;  leib^aftig,  bodily,  incarnate. 

3.  -H  dj  <  M.  H.  a  lich  <  O.  H.  G.  lich,  +  Ags.  -lie  + 
Eng.  ly,  later  again  "like." 

Originally  an  adjective,  occuring  only  in  compounds,  but  derived  from 
the  subst.  Ags.  lie,  O.  H.  G.  Uh  =  body,  form. 

a.  In  both  languages  its  earliest  meaning  is  "  like  "  or  "  similar  to,"  then  "  appro- 
priate," "  adapted,"  finally  it  became  very  frequent  and  often  without  particular  force. 

b.  The  umlaut  generally  precedes  -liif,  but  is  not  produced  by  it.  It  started  origi- 
nally in  stems  with  i  suffix  and  spread  by  analogy.  This  is  the  most  frequent  suffix 
and  attached  to  substantives,  adjectives,  and  verbs. 

Ex.  gottlli^,  godlike ;  ritterlid),  chivalrous ;  trauH(|,  familiar,  devoted  ; 
frol^Uc^f  merry  +  frolic ;  jlerblid),  mortal ;  k^arrlid),  persistent ;  begreiflid), 
comprehensible ;  erl)auUd),  edifying  ;  glaublld),  credible.  For  -tgliil  see 
552,  3. 

c.  er  in  leferlic^,  fuvii^terlic^,  etc.,  is  due  to  analogy.  These  lengthened  forms  have 
crowded  out  the  proper  old  forms  leSIict),  fi^^•^tIt(I^  In  certain  adjectives  the  ending 
has  been  mistaken  for  -ig,  and  the  spelling  has  followed  this  notion.  abcUg,  fcittig, 
unjft^Iig  have  the  suffix  -It(^,  but  cannot  now  be  corrected.  alltn&^U^  is  the  official 
spelling,  though  frequently  aUmd^Iig  is  met  with  <  adgeinac^,  gentle,  manageable. 

4.  -fa  wt  <  older  -sam,  originally  a  pronoun  ( 4-Eng.  same), 
-f  Ags.  -sum,  +  Eng.  -some,  -f  Gr.  ofwg,  +  L.  sim-ilis. 

It  denotes  originally  identity,  similarity,  but  has  now  no  particular 
force,  unless  it  be  capacity,  inclination. 

Examples  not  so  numerous,  the  suffix  has  lost  ground. 


52  WOEDFORMATIOK-— ADJECTIVES.  249 

Ex.:  einfam  +  Eng.  lonesome;  langfant,  slow;  gemeinfant,  common;  ar^ 
kitfam,  industrious  ;  l^ellfam  +  wholesome ;  graufam,  cruel,  +  gruesome. 

-ijoff,  +  ful,  -lo^  +  less,  come  under  composition,  though  in  Eng.  they 
might  come  under  this  head. 

For  -fa6),  -faltig,  -fcilttg,  see  the  numerals  531,  1. 

Derivation  of  Adjectives  by  Prefixes. 

527.  The  prefixes  in  substantives  have  the  same  force  and 
accent  when  attached  to  adjectives,  but  only  akr,  erg-,  ge-, 
un-,  ux-  form  immediate  compounds.  Adjectives  with  the 
other  prefixes  are  derived  from  substantives,  verbs,  etc.  Ex. : 
a'hnthiQ,  e'r^faul,  getreu',  u'nnii^,  u'ralt,  etc. 

Composition  of  Adjectives. 

528.  The  second  element  is  always  an  adjective  or  participle.  The  first 
element  may  be  any  part  of  speech  and  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
second  as  it  does  in  a  compound  noun.  Accent  and  form  of  the  first  ele- 
ment are  also  the  same.  Some  old  past  participles  without  ge^^  are  pre- 
served in  composition,  e.  g.,  trunfen,  barfen,  in  wonnetrunfen,  intoxicated  with 
delight ;  ^au^bacfeu  +  homebaked,  homely. 

1.  Adjective  +  Adjective. 

Ex. :  toUfit^n,  bummbreifl ;  bunfelMau ;  '^od)mutt9  <  $0(^mut  (see  2,  6) ;  blau* 
augig,  rotMcfig. 

2.  Substantive  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  tobfranf,  *frei'be»ei§,  ^golbgelb,  Uek^franf,  wonnctrunfen,  *mftufetot, 
*feberleic^t,  Me»oII,  geban!enreid),  ^offnung^lo^,  frcubeleer,  totenMeic^,  ttorfc^rift^* 
magtg,  antt^wibrig,  ^blutjung,  ^itlbreirf),  *felfenfefl.  In  those  with  *  the  noun 
expresses  a  comparison  and  has  often  intensive  force.  Notice  -ret(^,  U^, 
Uott  have  almost  become  suffixes. 

a.  Adjectives  in  -fclig  are  of  double  origin. 

1.  The  real  adjective  felicj,  in  the  old  sense  of  kindly,  as  in  (cutjena, 
QottfeliQ. 

2.  fellg  <  fal  (see  500,  1)  +  t^  •  niiitifeltg,  triitfcltg,  faumfeltg  <  SWit^fal, 
S^rutfal,  etc.    It  does  not  belong  here  at  all. 

b.  A  large  class  of  adj.  do  not  come  under  this  head,  e.  g.,  :^offarticj,  el^vgetjig;  many 
in  -iu(J}tig,  as  moubjiii^tig,  j(^iuiubjuci)tig.  They  are  derivatives  of  the  compound  nouns 
§ojtort  (  <  hdchvart,  ch  and  f  assimilated),  SO^onbfuc^t,  (S^vgeia. 


250  WORDFOEMATIOK — KUMERALS.  [529- 

3.  Pronoun  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  fel&jlrebenb,  fel()ftgenu9fam,  felbftlo^,  etc.,  only  with  [elbjl-. 

4.  Verb  +  Adjective. 

-     Ex.:   tui^begierig,  benffaul;  many  with  -tt)ert  and  -tvurbig  :  banfen^wert, 
Itekn^ttjurbtg. 

5.  Numeral  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  einaugig,  jtueietfig,  jweift^neibigf  crflgeboren,  ei'ngeboren,  only  child. 

6.  Adverb  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  l^oc^gevriefen,  alK  frifd)-^  neu-kcfeit/  two'^lfeil,  woflgefeoren. 

7.  Preposition  +  Adjectives. 

Ex. :  an^eif^ig,  ein^eimifd),  etngeboren,  native,  +  inborn ;  ab^olb,  iiberflug, 
i)o'rne^m»  u'ntert^an>  »o'rIaut.  furlte'b  does  not  belong  here,  fiir  =  as,  «al^^ 
al^  lieb  anne|men>  anfe^en.    Compare  jufrie'ben,  at  peace,  content. 

Derivation  of  Numerals. 

529.  3tt)et  is  probably  an  old  dual.  Btt)ecn<  zwme  has  the  distributive 
suffix  ni,+  Eng.  twain,  twin,  +  L.  hini.  With  jTOo  fern.,  <  older  zwd,  zwo, 
compare  M.  Eng.  twa,  two,  also  feminine.  The  numerals,  as  far  as  10 
inch,  can  be  easily  compared  with  the  cognates  of  other  languages  accord- 
ing to  Grimm's  and  Verner's  Laws,  elf  and  jjvelf  contain  perhaps  a  stem 
lik,  ten,  that  appears  in  Slavic.  They  come  from  older  einlif,  zuelif.  etlf 
is  archaic.    As  to  jwolf  for  jlpelf,  common  in  N,  H.  G.,  see  489, 1. 

1.  The  ending  -jig,  <  zug  +  Eng.  -ty,  differs  originally  from  je^n  in 
accent,  je'&tt  <  I.-E.  ^dekm,  L.  decern.     See  Verner's  Law. 

3.  ^unbert,  +  hundred,  is  compounded  of  hund  +  rath-;  the  latter  from 
the  same  stem  as  9iebe,  Go.  rathjan,  to  count.  Jmnd  alone  means  100, 
compare  L.  centum,  Gr.  kKarov  according  to  Verner's  Law.  See  further 
Kluge's  Diet.  S^aufenb  <  older  tusunt,  a  fern.  noun.  It  is  not  an  I.-E. 
numeral  like  all  the  others.    Root  doubtful. 

530.  The  suffixes  for  the  ordinals  are  really  the  superlative  suffixes 
-to,  -sto.  Only  German  and  Icelandic  use  -sto.  jiweit-  only  sprang  up  in 
the  15th  century.  Instead  of  it  was  used,  as  in  all  Germanic  dialects,  anbcr 
-f  other,  a  comparative  in  -ter.  Comp.  L.  alter,  anber  has  not  quite  died 
out.  Comp.  jum  tx\ttn,  jum  anbern  unb  jum  britten  ^alt,  still  used  at  auction. 
3l(^  ®oU !  n)ie  bo(|  mein  erfler  \oax,  ftnb^  t(^  m(^t  leit^t  auf  biefer  2Belt  ben  anbern, 
F.  3992-8.    anbert^alt>=one  and  a  half  ;  felbanber=lit.  himself  the  second. 


633]  WORDFORMATIOK — JS^UMERALS.  251 

i.e.,  two  of  them,  of  us.  britt-  has  the  short  vowel  of  the  stem  "  thriu" 
still  in  the  neuter  O.  and  M.  H.  G.  driu.  tt  <  dd  <  dj  as  in  Go.  ihridja, 
Ags.  thridda,  +  L.  ter-ti-us.  ber  ^unbertjle  was  in  O.  H.  G.  zeTmmogdsto, 
zehanzug  being  the  other  word  for  100  ;  really  "  ten  tens."  For  er|!»  h^i, 
%vx%  see  439,  2. 

Numeral  Derivatives  and  Compounds. 

531.     From  cardinals. 

1.  MULTIPLICATIVES  : 

Suflaxes  -fac^,  -falttg,  e.  g.,  breifad^,  »ierfac^,  i)telfa(J^.  In  O.  H.  G.  -fa(^  is 
only  noun,  -fac^  expresses  a  certain  number  of  parts,  divisions,  = 
tt%0i6)ix*"  -fait,- faltig,  faltig  +  -fold,  expresses  also  variety  besides  quantity. 
It  comes  from  the  same  stem  as  the  verb  fatten  +  fold,  and  is  quite  old. 
-fait  is  archaic  now.  bo)3pelt  + double,  is  <  French,  t  is  "excrescent"  ; 
in  compounds  t  does  not  appear  :  1)o^})elabler,  S^o^^pelganger, 

jlDie-  in  jwiefad),  jwiefaltig,  comes  from  older  zwi,  +  Gr.  di-^  L.  U-, 

2.  Iteratives  : 

-mal,  rare  -i^unb,  ei'nmal,  jt»ei'mal,  brei'mal,  ntan^mal ;  ciitma'l,  "  once 
upon  a  time."  -mal  is  the  noun  ?Dta^l  +  meal,  O.  H.  G.  mal.  Notice  wakr" 
mal(<5)",  once  more,  adverb  «akr"  =  "again;"  ein(mal)  fur  allemaL  wcin^" 
+  "  once,"  is  seemingly  the  neuter  N.  or  Ace.,  but  it  is  a  Gen.  <  older 
"  eines,"  form  which  einjl  with  excrescent  t,  +  once,  "onst."  „t\X[^"  is  now 
rare  and  so  is  wfhtnb."  Uhland  has  waHjlu'nb"  =  all  the  time.  (Stunb  and 
bal&  are  isolated  now  ;  mal  is  plnral,  being  neuter  (see  176). 

i  JX)  i  e  r,  now  rare,  comes  from  older  zwiro,  zwiror  (r  <  ?) 

632.     From  the  ordinals  : 

1.  Adverbs  like  erflens^,  peitens^,  etc.,  see  665,  2. 

2.  Fractions  by  -tel  <  3;eil,  S)rittel,  SJiertel,  ^itnftel,  one  t  is  lost  in 
writing,  Bwattjigllel.  They  are  neuter,  of  course.  «2)ritteil",  the  full  form 
is  now  archaic.  nSvoiikl"  has  not  come  up  on  account  of  the  late  origin  of 
„sWeite/'  «anbert^alb"  is  used,  see  530.  Notice  ber  3weitle^te,  next  to  the 
last ;  ber  2)rittle^te,  third  from  the  end. 

See  also  syntax,  226-229. 

533.  Variatives  are  formed  by  -let  <  M.  H.  G.  leie,  fem.  meaning 
*'  kind,"  probably  <  Romance.  The  numeral  preceding  it  is  inflected  like 
an  adjective,  man^erlei  (G.),  i^ielerlei;  »iererlei,  four  kinds,  etc.  But  the  com- 
pomid  is  invariable. 


252  WORDFOEMATION — VERBS.  [534- 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Verbs. 

534.  As  primitive  are  regarded  all  strong  verbs  except  pveifen,  fd^reiBen,  which  are 
foreign,  and  a  large  number  of  weak  verbs,  which  are  either  very  old,  such  as  ^abcn, 
frogcii,  or  they  are  those  whose  origin  is  obscure  or  whose  stem  no  longer  appears  in 
other  primitive  parts  of  speech,  e.  g.,  ^olen,  I^offen.  All  other  weak  verbs  are  derivatives 
except  the  originally  strong  that  have  become  weak,  e.  g.,  walten,  tnal^Iejt,  Befcen  (see 
Kl.).  They  are  derived  from  other  parts  of  speech  by  means  of  e,  the  connecting 
vowel  representing  older  i,  6,  ^,  which  unites  the  verbal  inflections  with  the  root  or 
with  those  words  from  which  the  verb  is  derived.  (This  e  may  drop  out.)  The  con- 
necting  vowel  i  or  j  ( <  jo)  produced  umlaut,  which,  since  the  j  class  was  by  far  the 
largest  of  the  three  classes  of  weak  verbs,  was  soon  used  through  analogy  as  a  com- 
mon means  of  deriving  verbs  after  umlaut  had  ceased  to  work.  Besides  the  vowel  e, 
there  occur  certain  secondary  suffixes,  some  of  which  have  a  peculiar  force. 

535.  1.  Derivation  with  umlaut  due,  a,  either  to  an  old  i 
or,  b,  to  analogy,  or,  c,  to  the  fact  that  there  was  an  umlaut 
already  in  the  noun-stem. 

a.  A  large  number  from  strong  verbs  of  the  II.,  Ill,  IV.,  V.,  VI.  ab- 
laut-series with  the  strong  ablaut,  i.e.,  with  the  vowel  of  the  pret.  sing., 
and  from  the  reduplicating  verbs  with  the  vowel  of  the  infinitive, 
e.g.,  flinlen  <  flicpen,  \[q^,  geftoffen  <fld^^an  <  ^flotjan,  to  cause  to  float,  II.; 
fenfen  <  ftnfen,  fanf,  gefunfen,  <  senken  <  ^sankjan,  to  cause  to  sink.  III.; 
jal^men  +  tame  <  zemen  <*zamjan,  this  <  zemeii,  IV.,  now  a  weak  verb 
Xtemen;  legen  <  Uegen,  lag,  gelegen,  <  *%>?i  +  lay,  V.;  fu^ren  <  fa^ren,  fu'^r, 
9efa:^ren  <  vueren  <  fuorjan,  VI.,  to  cause  to  go,  to  lead  ;  fatten < fatten,  fiel, 
gefatten,  <  M.  H.  G.  fellen  <  ^falljan,  to  cause  to  fall,  +  fell ;  fiirc^ten  < 
%uxd)t ;  lawmen  <r  Ia|m;  tijten  <  tot ;  trojlen  <  Hrostjan  <  trost  +  trust. 

b.  ppgen  <  gjflug,  Braunen  <  haun;  ja^ncn  <  Qa^n*)  5affen  <  t>aff ! ;  raumen 
<  fRaum  ;  ijffnen  <  ojfen. 

c.  grunen  <  grun  ;  tritJen  <  triiBc. 

Bern.  1.  If  the  strong  verb  is  intransitive  then  the  derivative  is  transitive  or 
causative  ;  if  transitive,  then  the  derivative  is  intensive  or  iterative,  e.g.,  id)ircmmen< 
fdjiuimmen,  to  cause  to  swim:  fe^en<fifeen,  to  cause  to  sit;  tetcn,  to  pray,  <Mtten(?), 
to  ask  for.  The  same  principle  prevails  in  English :  to  fall  —  to  fell,  to  lie  —  to  lay,  to 
drink  —  to  drench. 

Hem.  2.  j  (or  i)  has  caused  certain  changes  in  the  final  consonants  of  the  stems 
because  these  were  doubled  before  the  "  lautverschiebung,"  and  when  doubled  they 
shifted  diflferently  from  the  single  consonants.  For  instance  in  iverfcn  —  wac^cn,  becfen 
—  ®a(!^,  (f  <kk  <  kj,  but  c^  <k;  in  a^en  — cffcn,  Beijen  —  Bei^en,  fc^ni^en  —  f(^netbcn, 
l^efeen  —  §a|,  3,  ^  <  tt,  tj,  but  ^  <  t.  Similarly  f^opfen  (for  fdjepfen)  —  fd^affen ;  fenfen  — 
Baiujcn,  compare  Eng.  henciiman ;  t»tcgen  —  hudin  ;  fc[)mieflen  —  fci^mitden  ;  gcfi^ef^en  — 
fc^itf en.    Compare  also  Eng.  drink  —  drench ;  stink  —  stenclj. 


537]  WOEDFOEMATION — VEBBS.  253 

2.  Derivation  by  e  without  umlaut. 

These  are  late  or  if  old,  absence  of  umlaut  is  due  to  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain vowels  did  not  suffer  umlaut  in  certain  positions  or  that  the  con- 
necting vowel  was  e  or  6. 

Ex.:  k^neit  <  a3a^n,  fu^ert  <  %u^,  acfcrn  <  Slcfer,  formen  <  %oxm,  altern< 
SlUcr.  Older  are  Min<bet6n  <  beta,  prayer  ;  faffen  <  fa^§dn  <fa^;  fafien 
<  faston  <  fasta;  bulben  <  dulten  <  dult.  Notice  the  difference  between ; 
biu(f en,  to  print,  brittfen,  to  press ;  franfen,  to  be  ill,  franfcn,  to  grieve  ;  xo<x\^ 
jen,  to  roll,  technical  as  in  a  rolling-mill,  tcctljen,  to  roll,  revolve  ;  erfaUen, 
to  grow  cold  —  erfalten,  to  take  cold. 

536.  Derivation  by  e  preceded  by  a  suffix,  but  e  drops  out 
after  (  and  r» 

1.  -^  en,  intensive  force,  rare:  IjQX&jtw,  listen  -f-  hearken  <  pren  -f-  hear; 
fcfinarc^en  +  snore  <  fd)narren. 

2.  -eltt,  always  preceded  by  umlaut  if  attached  to  other 
verbs.     It  is  also  attached  to  substantives  and  adjectives. 

It  has  intensive,  iterative  force  and,  from  association  with  the  noun- 
suflix,  diminutive  and  hence  derisive  force.  Numerous  in  N.  H.  G.  on 
account  of  the  many  nouns  in  -el.     Generally  umlaut. 

Ex.:  Betteln  +  beg(?)<  Betem  Bitten^  pray,  ask ;  f(?^mci(^etn,  flatter <  fc^metd^cn 
(rare),  smooth  ;  lad)eln,  smile  <  lac6en-l-laugh  ;  frcinfcln,  be  sickly  <  franfen, 
be  sick  ;  frojleln,  to  feel  chilly  <  ^rojl;  Herein,  to  dally  <  Ucben,  lie:^;  from=^ 
meln,  cant  <  fromm,  pious;  ^anbeln,  to  trade  <  ^anb. 

537.  1.  -nen  +  Eng.  -n,  on  (rare). 

Ex.:  btenen,  from  the  same  stem  as  2)e- in  'Demut;  leriten  <  the  same 
stem  as  le^ren;  re^nm  <  0.  H.  G.  rehhanon,  +  Ags.  recenian;  warnert;  + 
warn,  <  same  stem  as  watjren  (?) ;  ijerbammen,  4-  condemn,  also  contains 
-n  <  M.  H.  G.  verdamnen,  but  <  L.  damnare.  Compare  jei^nen  <  Beic^en 
+  token,  regnen  <  9legen  +  rain,  in  which  n  belongs  to  the  noun,  see  502. 

2.  -ern,  -{-  Eng.  -r,  has  intensive,  iterative,  and  causative 
force.  Earely  preceded  by  umlaut ;  not  unfrequent  both  in 
Eng.  and  German. 

Ex.  :  alt^evn  +  Eng.  glitter,  <  glitzen  <  gli^en ;  flimmern  <  fltmntcn; 
glimmern  +  Eng.  glimmer  <  glimnien ;  flottern  <  L.  G.  stotern  <  stoten,  -f-  H.  G. 


254  WOEDFORMATIOIS^ — VERBS.  [538- 

flopen,  +  Eng.  stutter ;  jogern  <  zogen  <  jie^en  ;  ficfern  +  Ags.  sicerian,  to 
trickle. 

^  a.  Nouns  both  sg.  and  pi. ,  adjectives  and  their  comparatives  in  -er  have 
started  many  of  these  verbs,  e.  g.,  faubern,  emeitern,  Matteni,  rabern,  ar9ern< 
axQ ;  forbern,  to  promote,  forbern,  to  demand. 

538.  -ier en,  -ire n,  of  Eomance  origin,  always  accented, 
at  first  only  in  borrowed  words,  and  then  added  to  German 
noun-stems,     -eien,  of  similar  origin,  is  rare. 

Ex. :  Foreign  words  :  fallicren  +  fail,  regicren  +  reign,  flubterett  +  study, 
t)antteren,  trade  (rather  from  French  hanter  than  from  -f»anb,  see  Kluge). 
i^onterfeien,  to  paint  +  counterfeit;  geknebelet,  blessed.  German  stems  : 
^aufieren,  peddle ;  ftoljieren,  strut;  ^albieren.    In  Goethe's  Faust:  irrlii^telieren. 

a.  These  were  foiined  as  early  as  M.  H.  G.  in  no  small  numbers,  but  were  most 
numerous  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  Now 
they  are  excluded,  except  the  oldest  of  them,  from  elevated  style.  These  verbs  are 
very  numerous  in  the  journals. 

539.  1.  -f  e  n,  -e  f  e  n,  +  Eng.  s,  <  O.  H.  G.  -ison.  Eare  both 
in  English  and  German. 

Ex.:  grinfen,  +  grin,  <  greinen,,  M.  H.  G.  grinen;  graufen  <  O.  H.  G. 
gruwison  <  stem  gru,  G.  graufam^  ©rauel,  +  gruesome,  grapfen  +  Eng. 
grasp. 

a.  -fen  is  hidden  in  geijen  <  gitsen  <  gitison  <  subst.  git.  Compare 
Eng.  cleanse  <  clean,  -fen  stands  for  -jen  in  garffen  <  gagzen,  mudfen  < 
M.  H.  G.  muchzen. 

2.  -fc^  en.     This  is  of  double  origin  :   1)  From  -fen,  see  490,  1,  b  : 

\)txx\6)tn  <  hersen  <  herison  <  ^ixx,  herro ;  feilfc^en  <  miUen  <  feil. 

2)  From  -sk,  L.  sc,  +  Eng.  sh,  forfd)en  <  forsken  ;  perhaps  in  "^afdjen 
<  *hafsk6n,  if  that  comes  from  a  stem  liaf-.  For  more  examples,  see 
457,  4. 

3.  -jen  <  older  -zzen.  Has  sometimes  iterative  and  intensive 
force. 

Ex.:  bu^en,  iferjen,  erjen,  to  call  thou,  you,  he ;  a(!^jen  <  ac(),  to  groan;  led)* 
jen,  to  thirst,  <  Uchcn  +  leak  ;  feufjen  <  siufzen,  from  the  same  root  as 
faufcn;  f(i)Iu(i)jen,  to  sob,  M.  H.  G.  sluckzen  <  fd^lutfen. 

a.  -enjen  in  faulcnjen  <  faul,  is  due  to  the  influence  of  L.  nouns  in  -entia. 


541]  WORDFORMATIOK — VERBS.  255 

4.  -xQt  n.     This  is  a  secondary  suffix,  starting  with  verbs  derived  from 
adjectives  in  -ig  (see  525),  e.g.,  wiirbtgen  <  wiirbig,  notigen  <  notig.  It  was 
felt  to  be  a  verbal  suffix,  hence :  enbtgen  <  ©nbe,  freujigen  <  ^reuj,  retnigen - 
<  rein,  l^ulbigcn  <  -^ulb.    Quite  numerous. 

Verb  Formation  by  Means  of  Inseparable  Prefixes,  viz.: 

Be-,  en  t-,  e  r-,  g  e-,  »  e  r-,  j-,  j  e  r-     Always  unaccented. 

540.  6  C-,  b-  before  I,  +  Eng.  be-.   See  33ei-,  516,  4. 

1.  23  e- has  lost  nearly  all  local  force  of  "by,"  "near,"  "around," 
which  is  felt  still  in  bepngen,  cover  by  hanging,  kfd)netben,  cut  on  all 
sides,  to  trim,  but  in  these  it  approaches  already  its  common  force,  which 
is  intensive :  kbauen,  kfragen,  kge^ren,  Uxui)xtn,  bebeden,  Jentfen. 

2.  It  makes  intransitive  verbs  transitive  :  fallen— kfaEen  +  befall ;  reifen 
(in  einem  Sanbe)  —  etn  Sanb  bereifen,  travel  all  over  a  country;  fa^ren  auf  ettv., 
but  dtoa^  befa^ren.    This  is  its  most  frequent  use. 

3.  In  verbs  from  noun-stems  it  denotes  "  provide  with,"  "make": 
befc^u^en,  provide  with  shoes;  Ibe^olfern,  populate;  befreunben  +  befriend; 
betriiktt,  make  sad  ;  Bcjlarfen,  confirm.  Notice  certain  participial  adjec- 
tives which  have  no  corresponding  verb,  e.  gr,  beleibt,  corpulent ;  betagt, 
"  fall  in  years  ; "  klefen,  well  read ;  or  they  are  isolated  from  the  verb,  e.g., 
kf(i)eiben,  modest ;  kjlattt,  holding  an  office ;  kfc^ajfcn,  conditioned. 

4.  It  has  privative  force  still  in  Benel^men,  to  take  away ;  ft(^  Begekn 
(with  G.),  to  give  up.  Compare  Eng.  behead  and  M.  H.  G.  beJioubeten, 
for  which  now  cnt^au^ten.  N.  H  G.  U^aupkn  strangely  represents  M.  H  G. 
hehdben  and  teheben,  for  which  once  beJiouben,  to  maintain,  assert. 

541.  e  n  t-,  e  m  p-  before  f,  <  O.  H.  G.  intr-.    See  ant-,  516, 3. 

Its  force  is  :  1.  "  Opposite,"  "  in  return  ;  "  in  entpfc^len,  recommend  ; 
enH)fangen,  receive ;  entgelten,  pay  back,  restore ;  see  sub.  3. 

3.  Contrary,  "  against,"  privative,  '*  away  from  :  "  cntgelten,  suffer  for  ; 
cntfagen,  renounce ;  entbinben,  deliver ;  entf^el^en,  to  lack  (but  see  below) ; 
entbecfen,  entlaufen.  From  nominal  stems  :  entgleifen,  run  off  the  track ; 
entt^ronen,  dethrone ;  entublfern,  depopulate. 

3.  "  Transition  into,"  inchoative  *'  springing  from,"  "  out  of  :  "  ent|le^en, 
spring  from,  arise  ;  entbrennen,  to  take  fire,  break  out ;  entfc^lafen,  fall 
asleep.     A  quite  common  force. 


256  WOEDFORMATION- — VERBS.  [542^ 

542.  e  r-  <  0.  H.  G.  ir,  ar  +  Eng.  a-,  see  516,  9. 

Force:  1.  "Out from,"  "upward":  tx^tUn,  arise;  txmdm,  awaken; 
erforfc^en,  find  out ;  erftnben,  to  invent. 

2.  Transition  into  another  state,  inchoative  like  cnt- :  crfalten,  grow 
cold ;  txUix^tn,  bloom ;  erkben,  tremble.  Many  from  adjectives  :  erfranfen,  to 
fall  ill ;  erblinbcnf  to  become  blind. 

8.  Completion  and  success  of  the  action  :  erjagen,  erkttein,  to  obtain  by 
hunting*  by  begging;  very  frequent.     Compare  Eng.  arise,  abide. 

543.  g  e-,  g-  before  1,  see  516,  7,  +  Eng.  a-. 

Force  :  1.  "  Together  "  only  in  few  verbs  like  :  flefrieren,  congeal ;  gcrin* 
nen,  curdle;  gepreitf  to  belong;  geleiten,  accompany  ;-(]efaQen,  to  please. 

2.  Frequentative  and  intensive:  geloBen,  gebenfen,  gebieten,  and  finally  no 
force  at  all  as  in  the  past  participle  and  in  verbs  like  :  Qtiiixi)tn,  geliifleln, 
genefen,  genieien*  Numerous  past  part,  from  nominal  stems,  with  the  force 
of  "provided  with,"  see  540,  4:  Qefliefelt,  in  boots;  Qefinnt,  disposed; 
gejlirnt,  +  starry. 

544.  m  i  §-,  +  EDg.  mis-,  as  to  its  force,  see  516,  8;  as  to 
its  origin,  453,  1. 

Ex.:  mi^glutfen,  to  fail ;  mip^iJrcn,  to  misunderstand ;  mi^gijnnen,  to  grudge. 

545.  »cr-,  ]X-,  <  '^er^  far,  fir,  Go.  fra,  fr,  +  Eng.  for-. 
Very  frequent. 

Force  :  1.  *  Through,"  "  to  the  end,"  intensive,  "  too  much : "  ijerlteren, 
+  lose,  +  forlorn  ;  ^ergeBen  +  forgive;  veraltettf  grow  antiquated ;  ijergrakn, 
hide  by  burying;  ijerkrgeit;  hide ;  »er^inbern»  prevent;  ijerfd^lafen,  +  sleep 
too  long;  verfomnteitf  to  deteriorate;  verBlu^en,  fade;  ijerjagen,  despair;  tter=* 
fluc^cn,  curse  ;  ijerlaufen,  scatter ;  frerfcn,  to  eat  (used  of  animals). 

2.  The  opposite,  the  wrong,  a  mistake:  ijerfaufen*  »erHeten»  scrfufircn; 
verlegen  +  mislay,  but  also  (sub.  1)  to  publish  (a  book) ;  uerMucn,  build 
wrongly  ;  ft(^  »erlaufen,  lose  the  way  ;  ft^  ijer^oren,  to  mishear  ;  jtc^  ucrgrei* 
fen,  to  get  hold  of  the  wrong  thing ;  (jtc^)  ijergekn,  to  misdeal  (in  cards). 

3.  Waste  and  consumption  of  the  object :  »erbauen>  use  up  in  building 
(see  sub.  4) ;  ijerfaufen,  waste  in  drinking  ;  »erf|)ielen,  lose,  gamble  away. 

4.  From  nominal  stems  :  "change  into,"  " give  the  appearance  of," 
"bring  about  a  certain  state  of,"  e.g.,  Jjerglafen,  glaze,  turn  into  glass ; 
^ergolben,  +  gild ;  ijerfnbc^ern,  ossify  ;  ijerjuctern,  cover  with  sugar,  turn  into 


547]  WORDFORMATIOK — VERBS.  257 

Bugar ;   »erarmen,  grow  poor ;   ijerfc^lec^tcrn,  make  or  grow  worse ;   »crkuen 
(sub.  3),  cover  by  building  in  front  of. 

a.  yer-  in  past  participles :  vertvanbt,  related,  but  of  the  regular  verb  = 
"  applied  ; "  i)erfc^amt,  bashful. 

546.  a  e  r-  <  M.  H.  G.  zer-,  ze-,  O.  H.  G.  zur,  zar,  zir,  + 
Go.  tus-,  +  Gr.  dvg-  -\-  O.  Eng.  to-brecan,  gerbre^en.  Least 
frequent  of  these  suffixes. 

Its  force  is:  "separation,"  "scattering,"  "dissolution,"  "to  pieces"  : 
Ser^auen,  cut  to  pieces ;  jergltebern,  dismember  ;  jertruntmern,  dash  to  pieces. 

1.  If  ^e-  and  ijer-  precede  other  prefixes,  separable  or  inseparable,  the 
verb  is  always  an  inseparable  compound.  Ex. :  ijeru'nglucfen,  kei'ntrad)ti9en, 
benac^ric^tigen.  These  come  from  the  compound  nouns  Itngliicf,  (£{ntrad)t, 
^ladjxi^t.  See  547.  Notice  the  difference  between  k»o'rmunben  <  SJormunb 
(insep.)  and  UWx\iti)tn<UiiOx  +  pe^en  (sep.). 

2.  Notice  such  compounds  as  au'ferfle^en,  a'mx^u^m,  yorau'^ijerfiinbigen,  in 
which  the  second  prefix  is  inseparable.  The  first  and  second  have  no 
simple  tenses  in  main  clauses.  Their  past  part,  are  aufertlanben,  anerjogen. 
The  pret.  of  the  third  is  fiinbigte  »orau^,  but  the  past  part,  is  'ooxau^'otx-- 
funbigt,  without  ge-.    See  550. 

Compound  Verbs. 

547.  The  first  element  is  either  substantive  or  adjective  or 
adverb  or  preposition;  the  second  is  always  a  verb.  The  im- 
portant questions  are  accent  and  whether  the  compounds  are 
separable  or  inseparable,  or  both;  whether  direct  or  indirect. 

1.  Indirectly  compounded  are  the  verbs  derived  from  compound  sub- 
stantives and  adjectives.  They  are  inseparable  and  have  noun-accent- 
uation, i.  e.,  accent  on  the  first  element. 

Ex. :  ^e'rkrgen  <  ■^e'rkrge,  inn  ;  ra'tfd^lagen  <  Olat'fc^lag,  council ;  wa'fl* 
fa^rten  <  SBaHfa^rt,  pilgrimage ;  fruMtu*en  <  ^rii'^flud ;  argtoij^nen  <  Slrg^ 
njo^n,  suspicion  ;  beroittfommen  <  5Siflfommen. 

2.  That  these  are  not  genuine  compound  verbs  their  inflection  shows. 
The  seemingly  strong  verbs,  as  in  ra'tfc^Iagen,  "^eiratenf  etc.,  are  not  in- 
flected strong,  but  weak  :  ratfd)lagte,  geratfc^Iagt ;  "^eiratete,  ge|etratet.  Note 
also  :  ^anbfeatte,  ge^anb^abt,  not  ^anb'^atte,  fja'nb'^a&t  or  ^anbgei^abt. 

3.  Under  this  head  come  also :  1.  Verbs  of  which  the  compound  sub- 
stantive or  adjective  is  no  longer  common,  e.  g.,  rotiitx\t)X&jiiXi<weterleich  ; 
xi6:ii^ixiio^tx^<reehtverteg  ;  fcra'nbfc^a^en<  S3ranbf(^a^.    3.  A  few  verbs  which 


258  WORDFOEMATIOK — VERBS.  [548- 

seem  due  to  analogy  witli  tlie  above  and  formed  by  mere  juxtaposition 
of  adjective  or  substantive  and  verb,  e.  g.,  lie'6fofen,  tuiflfa^ren  (accent 
doubtful),  fro^Io'cEen,  lie'Mugeln,  wei'^fagen  (as  if  it  were  from  weife  and  fagen, 
but  it  comes  from  the  noun  wi^^ago,  prophet).  Principal  parts  :  Itcbfofen, 
IteHoj^e,  geliebfofl;  fro^Ioifen,  gefro^locft. 

548.  All  the  other  compound  verbs  are  directly  compounded,  separa- 
ble and  accented  on  the  first  part  excepting  certain  propositions,  see  549, 
which  form  the  only  genuine  old  compounds  with  accent  on  the  stem- 
syllable  of  the  verb.  These  and  the  verbs  in  540-546  are  the  compound 
verbs  proper  with  the  original  verb-accent. 

1.  Substantive  -i-  Verb. 

The  substantive  is  the  object  of  the  verb. 

Ex.:  fla'ttftnben,  ^au'^^alten,  teilne^men,  banffagen,  j^retSgeBcn* 

Note.— But  for  the  fact  that  in  certain  tenses  they  are  written  together  and  the 
substantive  is  now  according  to  the  "Rules"  to  be  written  without  capital,  these 
verbs  are  no  more  compounds  than  the  corresponding  Eng.  to  keep  house,  take  place, 
give  thanks.  As  late  as  early  N.  H.  G.  these  and  the  following  groups  were  not  treated 
as  compounds. 

2.  Adjective  +  Verb. 

The  adjective  is  generally  factitive  predicate,  e.  g.,  tt)a^rne^men,  "  take 
notice  of";  totfc^kgen,  strike  dead;  freifprec^en,  declare  not  guilty;  ijott^^ 
gte^en,  -fd^utten,  see  549,  5. 

a.  A  large  number  of  compounds  with  substantives  and  adjectives  oc- 
cur only  in  certain  forms,  viz.,  in  the  two  participles  and  in  the  infinitive 
used  as  a  noun,  e.  g. ,  :&lutfttttenb,  pflic^t^ergeffcn,  fiill()eglu(f t,  ba^  ©c^onfd^rciben, 
ba^  ©tittfc^weigen. 

3.  Adverb  or  Preposition  +  Verb. 

The  adverb  qualifies  the  verb  expressing  manner,  direction,  time. 
The  preposition  in  this  case  has  the  force  of  an  adverb.  Exceptions 
below. 

Ex.:  ^i'nf(^i(fcn,  ^e'r^olen,  tta'(|mac^en,  yorau'^fefeen,  sufa'mmenfommen,  wo'^l^ 
wotten. 

549.   Separable  and  inseparable  compound  verbs  occur  with 

buret),  (fitter),  iiber,  urn,  unter,  i)oU,  wiDer,  wieber, 

a.  Inseparable  verbs  compounded  with  these  prepositions  are  transi- 
tive, and  have  the  old  accentuation  of  verb-compounds  (see  421).  Here 
belong  also  all  verbs  with  flitter-,  wiber-  and  a  few  with  »olI-,  e.  g.,  »off^ 
hi'ngen.     These  verbs  are  nearly  all  old,  but  some  new  ones  have  been 


649]  WORDFORMATIOK— VEEBS.  259 

formed  after  them.  The  force  of  the  preposition  has  entered  into  and 
modified  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  so  that  if  the  simple  or  separable 
compound  verb  was  intransitive  the  inseparable  compound  became  tran- 
sitive ;  if  transitive,  the  compound  developed  a  different  meaning,  gen- 
erally figurative,  often  intensive.     As  to  ))aUn  and  fein  see  265. 

The  separable  compounds  have  not  the  verb-accentuation  and  the 
force  of  the  preposition  remains  literal  and  intact. 

Very  few  verbs  allow  of  both  compositions. 

1.  b  u  r  c^  means  +  "  through,"  "  thoroughly,"  completion  of  the  action, 
*'  filling  with,"  "to  the  end  of  a  fixed  limit  of  time,"  bu'rc^brtngett,  crowd 
through,  penetrate,  carry  to  a  successful  issue,  e.g.,  bie  ^ugcl  ijl  burc^gebrun^en, 
the  ball  went  through.  Trans.:  2)te  ^ugel  ^at  ba^  S3rett  burci^bru'ngen,  the  ball 
penetrated  the  board ;  „von  bent  ©efii^le  fcine^  9?ic^t^  burc^bru'ngen."  In  ,,'^k 
^.  [\t  bur(^  ha^  S3rett  gebrungen"  there  is  no  compound.  2)u'rd^[c^auen,  look 
through,  etiuasj  burd)f(^au'en,  see  through,  understand  thoroughly ;  burd^^ 
ta'njen,  to  spend  in  dancing,  bu'rd)tan^en,  to  dance  through,  to  pass  through 
dancing;  bu'r(^fe^en,  to  look  through  (a  hole),  hurriedly  through  a  book  ; 
the  inseparable  burd^fe'^en  is  obsolete,  it  would  have  the  force  of  bur(^== 
fc^au'en,  to  understand  thoroughly. 

2.  :^  t  tt  t  e  r^  -f-  behind.  Separable  compounds  with  l^inter  do  not  really 
occur  in  good  style.  In  ^i'ntcrgte^en*  -bringen  it  stands  for  ^inunter  =  pour 
down,  swallow.  The  inseparable  compounds  are  always  figurative  and 
transitive,  its  force  is  the  opposite  of  straight,  "deceptive":  l^intcrge'^n, 
deceive  ;  |ttttertrei6en,  to  prevent,  circumvent ;  ^i'nterge^en  would  mean  the 
more  usual  l)inter|e'r  orfeintena'nge^en,  to  walk  behind. 

3.  ul  tx  =  a)  separable  :  over,  beyond,  across  =  |ittu6er;  b)  in  close 
compounds  :  transfer,  covering,  a  missing,  figurative  sense,  extent  of  a 
certain  limit  of  time. 

a.  u'krfe^en,  cross,  take  across  (a  river) ;  u'UxQt^tn,  go  over. 

b.  u()erjte'^enf  cover  with ;  iif)erna'd)ten,  spend  the  night ;  ii&erfc^rei'kn,  head 
a  column  or  chapter ;  iiter^o'ren,  not  to  hear ;  u6crle'gen,  consider ;  ii'berf(^Ia=' 
gen  =  u'ntfc^lagen,  tip,  turn  over  ;  but  itberfc^Ia'gen,  calculate  (expenses) ; 
iikrfe'^enf  to  translate ;  uterge'^en,  pass  over,  skip  ;  iikrfe'^en,  overlook. 

4.  urn.  a.  separable  =  around,  about,  again  or  over,  upside  down, 
change  of  place,  loss  of  something,  failure. 

Ex.:  u'm'^angctt  (einen  2)?antet),  put  on,  (etn  S3ilb)  change  the  place  of  a  pict- 
ure ;  u'mlaufen/  overthrow  by  running ;  u'mfleiben,  change  clothing ;  u'm=* 
fe^ren,  turn  back ;  u'mfommen  (viz.,  um^*^  Seben),  perish,  u'm^ringcttf  take  the 
life  of  ;  jlc^  u'mgcl^cn,  take  a  roundabout  course. 


260  WORDFOEMATIOI^ — ^VERBS.  [550- 

6.  inseparable :  literally  denotes  the  encircll-ng  of  an  object,  figura- 
tively it  has  the  force  of  Winter,  deception :  uma'rmen,  embrace  ;  utnf^i'f^ 
fen,  sail  around,  double ;  umflei'ben,  cover,  drape  ;  untge'^en,  avoid,  deceive. 

5.  unter,  separable:  under,  down,  among  (with):  u'nter^alten,  hold 
under,  down;  u'ltterbringen,  provide  for  (figurative) ;  u'ntergelen,  go  down,  set. 

Inseparable,  figurative  sense:  iintert)a'(ten,  entertain;  untcrfa'gen  (Dat), 
forbid  ;  fi(^  unterjle'^en,  make  bold ;  untcrnc'^men,  undertake ;  unterla'ffen, 
leave  undone ;  unterlic'gen,  to  be  overcome  by. 

6.  i)  0  U ,  separable  :  +  full,  always  literally  with  verbs  denoting  pour- 
ing, filling  and  similar  ones:  WUhxin^m,  »o'%ie§en,  vo'Ufc^utteu (ein ©efci^), 
bring,  pour  a  vessel  full.  Inseparable  :  "to  the  end,"  accomplishment: 
Vottfii'^ren,  ^oflbri'ngen,  execute;  ttofle'nben,  finish,  compare  Eng.  fulfil; 
»ottfo'mmen  (part.),  perfect. 

7.  W  i  b  e  r  in  the  sense  of  *'  against "  is  always  inseparable  and  unac- 
cented, generally  figurative  sense  :  wiberle'gen^  refute ;  wibevjlre'ben  (with 
Dative),  resist ;  JDlberfpre'c^en,  contradict  (also  Dat.) ;  ttJtbcrjle'^en,  to  resist. 

8.  tDieber,  separable:  "again,"  "back":  Tok'htx^oUn,  fetch  back; 
iDie'bergeben,  give  back ;  wie'berfagen,  say  again.  Very  loose  compounds. 
Inseparable  :  figurative  sense  only  in  tt>ieber^o'Ien,  repeat ;  ioiber^a'tten, 
tt>iberfd)ei'nen  also  tt)ie'berfc^einen,  tt)i'eber^allen;  usage  is  unsettled  in  these. 

a.  The  difference  in  the  spelling  iciber — icieber  is  quite  modem. 

550.  Separable  and  inseparable  composition  with  these  adverbs  is  quite  old,  but  in 
O.  H.  G.  probably  no  distinction  was  made  in  force  or  meaning.  Even  now  ,,®ie 
titgel  ijat  ba3  ^Brctt  butc^bru'ngen"  and  ,,hk  £.  ift  bur(!^  iaS  ^rctt  gebvungcn"  amount  to 
quite  the  same  thing.  In  fact  separable  composition  is  no  real  composition.  Many 
still  write  the  prefixes  separately  before  the  verb  where  any  other  adverb  would  stand. 
In  M.  H.  G.  the  great  majority  of  our  modern  separable  compounds  are  not  felt  at  all 
as  compounds.    Two  things  have  brought  about  this  feeling  that  they  are  such : 

1.  The  substantives  compounded  with  the  same  element  as  the  verb,  e.  g.,  U'mgang, 
®u't(^fai)rt,  3rbbru(^,  have  lead  us  to  associate  urn  and  ge^en,  buv(^  and  fasten,  ah  and 
Brei^en. 

2.  When  a  meaning  different  from  the  literal  or  common  one  was  developed,  verb 
and  adverb  were  felt  as  belonging  together,  e.  g.,  et»a6  bu'r^fe^en,  to  carry  something 
through,  to  the  end  ;  vorjc^lagen,  to  propose ;  na^f(!^tagen,  to  look  up  a  reference,  etc. 

a.  Very  often  there  is  no  difference  in  meaning,  but  only  in  construction,  between 
the  simple  verb  +  preposition  and  the  close  compound,  e.  g.,  1,  ®a§  ^ferb  ift  fiber  ben 
®raben  gefprungen,  =  "The  horse  has  jumped  over  the  ditch,"  and,  2,  ba5  5Pferb  ^at  ben 
©rafcen  liberfprungen,  The  horse  has  jumped  the  ditch.  In  2,  perhaps  the  act  of  the 
leap  is  emphasized,  it  did  not  sioim  across;  in  1,  the  extent  of  the  leap.    But  compare 


552]  WORDFORMATION — ADVERBS.  261 

also  the  other,  not  literal  meaning  of  utevfpri'ngen,  viz.,  to  skip,  omit,  in  :  ®cr  Sieifenbe 
f)at  einen  ^Joften  iiBerfpvungen,  the  traveller  has  skipped  one  item,  ©er  0?.  ift  uiev  ben 
gJoftcn  gefprungen  would  be  meaningless. 

Derivation  of  Adverbs. 

The  adverbs  are  derived  from  pronominal  stems  and  from 
noun-stems. 

551.  The  two  suffixes  en  and  er,  <  older  an(a)f  ar{a), 
are  attached  to  the  stems. 

Adverbs  from  Pronominal  Stems. 

1.  From  the  stem  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun: 

a.  From  tlie  stem  ta-tha  :  bar,  ha  +  there,  bann  +  then  and  beitn,  conj. 
*'  for,"  tliis  double  form  is  M.  H.  G.,  but  the  difference  in  meaning  was 
only  established  as  late  as  the  18th  century,  <  older  danne,  denne,  which 
have  not  been  explained  yet.  ©annen  <  dannana  stands  only  in  wVon 
banncn",  hence,    ^ej^o,  see  442,  a ;  bort  <  darot ;  bod)  +  though  (?). 

&.  From  the  stem  hi :  ^er  +  hither  ;  :^in,  away  ;  |)ier  +  here  ;  j^initen, 
in  »on  llnnen,  hence.     |)inteit,  ^eutc,  '^eint,  "^euer,  see  443,  2. 

2.  From  the  stem  of  the  interrogative  pronoun : 

ttjann  +  when,  menn,  if ;  tt)or-,  tt)0  +  where  <  wa,  war ;  i)t>n  wannen  + 
whence  is  rare,  Forroie  +  how  -f  why,  see 444,  1.  SBaru'm  <wdr  + 
umhe  or  wara  +  umbe  (?). 

3.  From  the  stem  swa- :  fo  +  so  ;  \amt,  pfammen  (?),  fonber,  aU,  alfo,  fonjl 
<  sunst,  SKst,  sus.  From  various  stems  :  oUn,  4-  above  ;  unteitf  unter,  + 
under ;  nib  (rare),  nieben  -h  beneath  ;  nun  +  now  ;  au^en,  au^er;  innen,  inner. 

552.  Adverbs  from  Noun-stems. 

These  adverbs  are  always  cases  of  nouns,  the  Genitive 
being  the  most  frequent.  .  See  187. 

1.  Genitive :  abenb^,  morgen^r  nac^t^,  tcila,  flitga,  htxmil,  bernta^en,  nti^tS. 
^  was  looked  upon  as  an  adverbial  ending  and  added  to  fern,  nouns  and 
even  to  other  cases  and  whole  adverbial  phrases,  e.g.,  -fett<3  in  many 
compounds :  bie'^feit^,  mei'nerfeit^,  aUerbi'nc?^  (really  a  G.  pi.),  WxmaU,  unter^ 
tot'Qi,  e'^emal^f  aUerwe'gen.  Compare  Eng.  needs,  now-a-days,  always, 
sometimes. 

2.  Dative:  imn'lm,  mitten,  ^alUn,  traun(?),  morgen  (sg. ?),  aB^nben,  »or^ 


262  WORDFOEMATION — ADVERBS.  [553- 

^a'nben,  pfolge,  anjiatt.    Compare  Eng.  to-morrow,  o'clock,  a  year  <  on 
(in)  the  year,  a  day  <  on  (in)  the  day,  because,  asleep,  whiiom. 

3.  Accusative :  njeg  (?)  +  away ;  ^etm  +  home ;  tnal,  once ;  bieweil,  + 
while ;  u6er!)au))t/  ic  nte. 

-ttjetfc  following  at  first  only  after  a  Gen.,  later  the  uninflected  noun  : 
i^wangi^tDeifc,  by  force,  au^na^m^wetfe,  exceptionally,  ftiitfweife,  piecemeal. 
Compare  Eng.  nowise,  otherwise,  the  while. 

4.  Instrumental:  ^euer,  this  year<  hiujaru ;  l^eute,  to-day < hiutagu ; 
^cint  <  Iiinaht  (a  Dat.?).     See  443,  2. 

553.  Derivation  by  suffix:  -H n  g  ^  and  -n?  d  r  t  g» 

1.  -littQ^  comes  from  the  G.  of  nouns  in  -Un^  and  is  a  late  formation  : 
rurfling^f  backward  ;  ^Iinblin9<3,  blindly.    Compare  Eng.  sideling,  headlong. 

2.  -n)art^  + ward  is  really  the  G.  of  an  adjective  wert,  wart.  It  is  very 
common  after  prepositions  :  ^eimwoirt^,  homeward  ;  JDaIbtt)art^,  towards  the 
forest ;  a'^wcirtg,  downward,  aside  ;  ijorwart^  +  forward. 

Advebbs  from  Adjectives. 

554.  Almost  all  adjectives  can  be  used  as  adverbs. 

Adverbs  with  a  sufl&x  : 

1.  -t,  this  is  now  rare  but  once  very  frequent  <  older  -o,  which  was 
probably  the  A.  sg.  fem.:  9ern(e)/  fern(e),  ktbc  in  Goethe's  wSBarte  nur,  fealbc 
fRw^t  bu  aud^." 

a.  Remark  here  the  doublets  fajl  —  fefl,  fc^on  —  f(^on,  fru^  (rare), —  frii^, 
fpat  (rare),  —  fpat.  Those  without  umlaut  are  the  regularly  formed  ad- 
verbs from  jo-stems.  Those  with  umlaut  are  adjectives  used  as  adverbs. 
In  trcigc,  Wfc,  etc.,  e  does  not  go  back  to  -o,  but  O.  H.  G.  i  <  jo,  since  they 
are  adjectives  (Jo-stems)  used  as  adverbs  and  not  transformed  into  adverbs. 

2.  -H  d^  4-  -ly^  is  really  no  adverbial  suflBx,  but  the  adjective  suffix  to 
which  the  adverbial  e  ( <  o)  was  added,  -liche,  -liho :  treullc^  —  treu  +  truly, 
faithfully ;  tt)a^rtic^  —  tval^r,  gittUc^  —  pt,  freilid),  to  be  sure,  —  fret ;  HtterU(| 
—  adjective  Jitter. 

a.  The  corresponding  adjective  in  -lic^  is  perhaps  no  longer  in  use. 
Compare  freilic^,  to  be  sure  —  fret  +  free. 

6.  -lid^  has  also  been  added  to  other  stems:  einf(|Ue§li(|,  |o|TemH(|,  tt)if^ 
fentli*. 


556J  WORDFORMATION — PREPOSITIOKS.  263 

555.  Adverbs,  cases  of  adjectives. 

Genitive:  1.  rec^ta,  Unf^,  eilenb^,  i>txQtbin^,  fleta  +  steadily. 

2.  -e  n  «3  from  superlatives  and  ordinals :  tr\ttn^,  ^pd)f^en^,  ntet|!ctt^,  brtt=* 
ten^.     -tn^  contains  the  inflection  -en  of  the  adjective. 

a.  Genitive  with  excrescent  t.  Such  are  felt  as  superlatives :  jiingf!, 
langjl,  nebft;  ein|l  (?),  but  in  O.H.G.  are  doublets  einest  and  eines.  Compare 
Eng.  once<  dues  and  dial,  "onst"  ;  also  amidst,  amongst,  dial,  ''acrost." 
Pure  Gen.  in  Eng.  else  <  elles,  unawares,  etc. 

Bern.  The  above  explanation  is  rejected  by  Leccer  in  Grimm''s  Diet. 

3.  Dative.  It  is  hidden  in  jwar  <zewdre,  lit.  "for  true,"  to  be  sure. 
Sin'^cln,  singly  <  einzel  by  suffix  -il  from  ein{az)  <  ein;  adj.  einje(n-er. 
In  adverbial  phrases  :  am  leii^tcflen.  am  fc^onflen.  In  M.  H.  G.  this  Dative 
was  very  frequent,  e.g.,  in  -lichen^  -Hngen,  etc. 

4.  Accusative,  also  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  :  iDcntg, 
i)tel,  genug,  me^r,  meift,  beffer,  \66)^,  moglii^ft.  In  adverbial  phrases :  in<Sbe* 
fonbere,  fuma^r,  auf(3  reinfte,  fd)onrtc.    See  300,  2. 

a.  Note  also  those  preceded  by  prepositions  :  jule^t,  +  at  last,  neben  ( < 
eneben),  pgleid),  at  the  same  time,  fitrba'§  or  fii'rba§,  farther. 

Prepositions  and  Conjunctions  have  tlie  same  origin  as  the 
adverbs,  being  originally  adverbs. 

Three  classes  of  words  may  be  comprised  under  the  head 
of  Particles. 

Prepositions. 

556.  1.  As  old  and  simple  prepositions  may  be  regarded :  cA,  m,  auf, 
avii,  bet/  vor  and  fur  (doublets),  burc^,  gegen  ( +  again),  in,  mtt,  ob,  ju»  \xm  ( < 
umbe). 

2.  Derived  by  suffixes  :  -er,  -ber,  -ter,  mostly  from  pronominal  stems 
and  from  the  older  forms  ar,  dar,  tar,  which  are  probably  all  three  com- 
parative suffixes  :  itber,  unter,  Winter,  tuieber/  au§er.     See  551,  3. 

3.  A  number  of  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  various  cases  :  fraft,  un=' 
weit,  wa^renb,  mtttel^  (mtttelft),  f^att,  lang^,  tro|,  fyalbcn,  wegen,  tt)ilten,  nac^j^, 
nebjl,  laut;  nac^,  jwtfdben. 

a.  The  number  of  prepositions  governing  the  Gen.  is  really  dilflcult  to  state,  be- 
cause, like  many  of  the  above  and  many  others,  they  are  really  nouns  with  a  G. 
dependent  upon  them,  viz.,  jwedS,  ^^^VL\i,  feetreffS,  feitenS,  etc. 


264  WORDFOKMATIOl^ — IKTERJECTIOKS.  [557- 

557.  Compound  Pkepositions  are  generally  adverbs,  but  tbe 
following  may  be  classed  here  : 

1.  Preposition  (or  adverb)  +  preposition  or  adverb  :  Mnnen<  bi  +  innen, 
U^  <  bi  +  a^  (a^  +  Eng.  at),  nekn  <en  +  eben.  juwiber ;  mtge'gen  <en  +  gegen 
(t  excrescent,)  etc. 

2.  Noun  +  noun,  or  prep.  +  noun,  or  pronoun  +  noun  :  ^ufolge,  several  in 
-l^alO  and  -fett :  au^er^alb,  ienfeit,  anflatt. 

Conjunctions. 

558.  1.  From  pronominal  stems:  For  ba,  benn^  fo,  wcnn,  Wie,  and 
others,  see  among  adverbs,  551.  %Ux,  aud^,  unb,  ober,  fonbern,  it)eber,  show 
suflBxes. 

3.  From  nouns  and  adjectives  :  \oSii,  gleic^,  ungeac^tet,  mW,  ival)renb,  and 
others. 

3.  Compounds :  adverb  and  preposition :  :&ei)or,  fotalb,  mit^in,  fomit, 
ba^er,  barum,  and  others. 

4.  Preposition  or  adverb  +  pronoun  or  adjective :  inbem,  feitbeni,  foba§> 
ali3  ba^,  aHeitt,  entweber  <  einr-  de-  weder,  one  of  two ;  nid)i^be|lott)eni9er, 
nevertheless. 

Interjections. 

559.  Interjections  proper. 

1.  Joy  is  expressed  by:  a^,  o,  l^et,  {uc^'^e,  ^eifa,  |«rra^.  Surprise:  et,  pofe, 
l^a.  Pain  by :  o^,  m^t,  au,  a(|,  '^u.  Disgust :  ^)fui,  fi,  k^.  Doubt ;  |m, 
Item,  |um.  Commands  to  be  silent  are  ;  pj^,  ^^,  \6^  ;  to  stop  or  pay  at- 
tention ;  hrr  (to  horses),  l^eba,  l^e,  |o,  ^ollaf  ^attol^. 

2.  Imitations  of  sounds  in  nature ;  'phxm'p^  (^all),  piff,  paff,  i)u|f  (shot), 
l^ut  (whizz),  bau^  (fall),  ntu^  (cow),  ntfau  (cat),  i»au  (dog),  |o))fa  (stumble), 
bum  —  bum  (drum). 

3.  Burdens  of  songs:  !t)ubelbumbei,  Su»i»attera,  fc^rum— fd^rum  — fc^rum. 

560.  Certain  regular  words  which  have  become  exclamations,  often 
oaths  in  much  changed  forms :  ^<x{i,  ^Better,  Conner  unb  SBlt^en,  ^^o^taufcnb, 
^eil,  S3ratto,  D  ie,  D  iemine,  ©apjjerment,  ©aferlot,  SRein  ^immel,  2)onnemetter 
noc^  einmal. 


LIST    OF    ABBKEVIATIONS    AND    SYMBOLS    THAT 
KEQUIRE  EXPLANATIONS. 


Ags.  =  Anglo-Saxon. 

(B.)  =  Bible. 

(Bo.)  =  Bodenstedt. 

(Bii.)  =  Burger. 

(Ch.)  =  Chamisso. 

D.  =  Dutch  or  Dative. 

(F.)  =  Hart's  Edition  of  Goethe's 

Faust,  Part  I. 
Fr.  =  French. 
(G.)  =  Goethe. 
Go.  =  Gothic. 
Gr.  =  Greek. 
G.  T.  =  General  Teutonic, 
(H.  and    D.)   =  Hart's  edition  of 

Goethe's  Hermann  and  Dorothea. 
(He.)  =  Herder. 
H.  G.  =  High  German. 
(Hu.)  =  A.  von  Humboldt. 
I.-E,  =  Indo-European. 
L.  =  Latin. 
(Le.)  =  Lessing. 


L.  G.  =  Low  German. 

(Lu.)  =  Luther's  works  excepting 
his  translation  of  the  Bible. 

M.  G.  =  Middle  German. 

M.  H.  G.  =  Middle  High  German. 

N.  G.  =  North  German  or  North 
Germany. 

N.  H.  G.  =  New  High  German. 

O.  Fr.  =  Old  French. 

O.  H.  G.  =  Old  High  German. 

(Prov.)  =■  Proverb. 

(R.)  =  Riickert. 

Rules  =  the  oiBScial  rules  for  spell- 
ing, see  37. 

(Sch.)  =  Schiller. 

S.  G.  =3  South  German. 

(Sh.)  =z  Shakespere  translated  by 
Schlegel  and  Tieck. 

(Uh.)  =  Uhland. 

V.  L.  =  Vulgar  Latin. 


<  means  **  derived  from,"  "  sprung  from,"  "  taken  from." 

>  means  "  passed  or  developed  into,"  ''  taken  into." 

-+-  between  a  Geiman  and  non-German  word  denotes  common  origin 
or  "cognates."  In  other  positions  it  means  "  accompanied  or  followed 
by." 

*  before  a  word  means  that  that  form  of  the  word  does  not  actually 
occur,  but  is  conjectured  or  reconstructed. 

:  =  :,  or  :  as  :,  means  a  relation  as  in  a  mathematical  proportion. 

I,  II,  III  after  verbs  indicates  the  strong  verb-classes. 

—  between  letters  means  "  interchanges  with,"  e.g.,  ^ —  d)  as  in  ^o^er  — 
f)o^  or  c  —  i  as  in  ne^men  —  nimmjl* 


SUBJEOT-INDEX. 


The  numbers  refer  to  the  paragraphs.    The  umlauts  have  a  separate  place,  h  after 
a,  0  after  o,  ft  after  «. 


Ablaut :  nature  of,  393 ;  four  grades, 
394,463,2;  496;  497. 

Ablaut  series :  and  verb-classes,  133- 
139  ;  I.-E.,  394,  1 ;  G.  T.,  >  O.  H.  G.  > 
N.  H.  Q.,  395-400;  459-467  ;  group- 
ing of,  459. 

Abstract  nouns  :  article  before,  149  ;  no 
article,  145  ;  155,  2;  plural  of,  171 ; 
63,  Eem. 

Accent:  417,418;  degrees  of,  419; 
chief  on  stem-syllable,  430-  430,  2; 
478,  4;  Eng.  in  Norman-Fr.  words, 
430,  3  ;  in  compounds,  431-433  ;  sec- 
ondary, 434;  rhetorical,  436;  "free" 
in  I.-E.,  430,  2 ;  in  foreign  words,  437, 
430,  1;  434,  4;  493,2;  63,  2;  charac- 
teristic of  Germanic  Lang.,  478, 4;  =:in- 
tonation,  393,  1. 

Accidence :  38-138  ;  Historical  Commen- 
tary on,  438-476. 

Accusative:  office  of,  198;  after  verbs, 
198-306;  two  A.  after  verbs,  199; 
predicate  in  passive,  303,  2;  cognate, 
303  ;  logical  subject  in,  305  ;  after  re- 
flexive verbs,  306  ;  adverbial,  307;  dif- 
ference between  A.  and  G.  of  time,  308, 
1 ;  after  adjectives,  307, 1 ;  183  ;  abso- 
lute, 309  ;  397, 1 ;  by  attraction  in  the 
pred.  after  laffen,  303, 1 ;  after  prepos., 
304-306;  with  Inf.,  393. 

Adjective:  decl.  of,  69-73  ;  436  ;  origin 
of  strong  decl.,  437;  comparison  of, 
73-76,  see  comparison,  compar.  and 
superlat. ;  438,  439 ;  used  as  nouns, 
330,  331,  181 ;  gender  of  same,  160, 
3  ;  169  ;  163,  3 ;  G.  after,  183,  183  ; 
D.  after,  194  ;  A.  after,  183 ;  307,  1. 

Attributive  use  of,  311-317  ;  only 
used  attributively,  311  ;  uninflected 
used  attributively,  313  ;  in  the  predi- 
cate, 318,  330 ;  as  nouns  declined 
strong,  314  ;  G.  sg.  m.  and  n.,  316,  1 ; 
declined  weak,  313;  317,1;  as  nouns, 
331, 1;  origin  of  double  decl.,  315  ;  un- 
settled usage  as  to  strong  and  weak 
decl.,  316,  331  ;  after  indef.  pron., 
314;  316,  4;  181  ;  after  person,  pron., 
316,2;  two  or  more  adj.,  313,  3;  317. 
In  the  predicate,  318,  319  ;  only  used 
in  pred.,  319 ;  position  of  adjuncts  of,  , 
353  ;    accent  in   certaiu   compounds,  I 


433,  1-7;  derivation  of,  533-538; 
used  as  adverb,  554. 

Adjective  Clauses :  nature  of,  333  ;  336- 
338  •  339 

Adverb'ial  Clauses :  nature  of,  333,  339  ; 
various  kinds  of,  330-340  ;  see  tempo- 
ral, local,  clauses  of  manner  and  cause 
(333-340),  final  (338),  conditional, 
(340),  etc. 

Adverbs:  origin  of,  551-555;  <  G.  of 
nouns,  187,  553 ;  +prepos.  supplanting 
the  person,  pron.,  334  ;  syntax  of,  399, 
300;  after  prepos.  +  noun,  300;  ad- 
verbs which  are  only  adverbs,  300, 1 ; 
554,  2;  adjective  as,  300,  2;  5.54- 
comparison  by,  333,  334  ;  relative  and 
absolute  superl.  of,  300,  2 ;  nature  of, 
301, 1  ;  interrogative,  351,  5;  relative, 
358,  336,  331  ;  demonstrative,  337, 
3;  in  local  clauses,  331,  a;  position  in 
a  sentence,  354 ;  order  of  adverbs  of 
time,  place,  manner,  355 ;  accent  in 
compound,  433. 

Adversative  Sentences  :  coordinate,  330. 

Affricate:  413,  5;  408,1. 

Alemanic :  483, 1. 

Alphabet :  piinted  and  script,  1,  3  ;  ori- 
gin of  the  G.  letters,  360  ;  Latin  letters 
m  G.,  360,  2 ;  relation  to  G.  sounds, 
361. 

Anglo-Saxon,  see  English. 

Apposition:  <  G.  of  nouns,  181 ;  179, 
1:  317. 

Articles :  inflect,  of,  38 ;  accent  of,  39 ; 
contraction  with  prepositions,  40 ;  spell- 
ing of,  39 ;  41  ;  syntax  of,  140-158  ; 
nature  of  140  ;  general  cases  of  absence 
of,  141-146 ;  before  proper  nouns, 
147  ;  before  abstract  nouns,  149;  be- 
fore names  of  materials,  1.50 ;  before 
collective  nouns,  151 ;  repetition  of, 
158.    Sec  A.,  def.  and  indef. 

Article,  Def. :  infl.  of,  38 ;  attraction  to 
preceding  words  not  prepositions,  41  ; 
contraction  with  preceding  prepos.,  40  ; 
relation  to  Eng.  possessive  pron.,  1.54, 
343,3;  distributive  for  Eng.  "a,"  156. 

Article,  Indef. :  infl.  of,  38  ;  aphaeresis  of, 
41 ;  after  certain  pronouns,  144,  353; 
before  certain  pronouns,  157. 

Austrian:  483. 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


267 


Auxiliaries:  of  tense:  infl.  of,  110  ;  use 
of,  365,  266  ;  883,  2 ;  omission  of, 
346;  in  passive  voice,  373. 

Modal :  see  pret.  pres.  verbs  ;  special 
uses  of,  367;  verbs  of  motion  omitted 
after,  367,  Rem, ;  imperative  force  of, 
387,  4;  +perf.  and  pres.  inf.,  388, 1; 
390;  in  future,  379,  3,  o. 


Bavarian-Austrian :  483,  2 ;  488,  5,  a. 
Bible:  486;  487. 
Brechung :  405,  Bem. 


Capitals :  initial,  364 ;  in  pronouns  of 
address,  330:  in  article,  39. 

Cardinals,  see  Numerals. 

Cases :  see  individual  cases,  N.,  G.,  etc. ; 
order  of  cases  in  the  sentence,  353. 

Causal  Sentences :  coordinate,  331 ;  sub- 
ordinate, 337. 

Comparative  :   see  comparison  ;   use  of, 

333  ;  by  adverbs,  333,  334  ;  conjunc- 
tions after,  333. 

Comparative  Clauses  :  333,  1-3  ;  with 
ntd)t,  333,  2. 

Comparison:  of  adjectives,  73-76;  438; 
439 ;  irregular,  76,  1 ;  defective  and 
redundant,  76,  2;  the  suffixes,  73,  438 ; 
by  adverbs,  333,  334,  333, 1 ;  of  two 
qualities  of  the  same  object,  334. 

Compound  words  :  accent  of,  431-434  ; 
irregular  accent  of  certain  nouns,  adjec- 
tives, and  prefixes,  433  ;  secondary  ac- 
cent in,  434  ;  531 :  see  nouns,  adj., 
etc. ;  516 ;  compared  with  Eng.,  531, 
2,6. 

Compound  tenses  :  109-115;  383. 

Concessive  Clauses :  339. 

Conditionals :  formation  of,  115,  383,  5  : 
force  of,  380,  381,  384,  5. 

Conditional  Clauses  :  tenses  in,  380,  384, 
5 ;  nature  of,  340 ;  several  forms  of, 
340, 1 ;  word-order  in,  343,  c. 

Conjugation :  strong  and  weak,  101-103  ; 
446,476  ;  weak,  117,  118,  447,  454, 
455  ;  strong,  130-133,  446,456-469. 

Conjunctions:  classification  of,  307  ;  ori- 
gin of,  301,  558. 

Coordinating :  copulative,  319;  adver- 
sative, 330  ;  concessive,  330,  2  ;  causal, 
331  ;  illative,  333. 

Subordinating  :  in  temporal  clauses, 
330 ;   in   comparative   clauses,    333 ; 

334  ;  in  consecutive  clauses,  335  ;   in 
restrictive  clauses,  336;  causal,  337; 

•  final,  338  ;  concessive,  339  ;  condi- 
tional, 340. 

Consecutive  Clauses :  335. 

Consonant-declension,  see  n-declension. 

Consonant-stems :  become  i-stems,  54  ; 
438,  2  ;  433,  1 ;  433-435. 

Consonants:  description  of,  374-389; 
open,  374-381  ;  shut,  383-385  ;  na- 
sals, 386-388J;  compound,  389  ;  long, 
389,  5;  cous.-table,p.  167;  see  Grimm's 


and  Verner's  Laws;  doubling  or  length- 
ening of,  389,  5;  413,  5;  488,  2,  c; 
535, 1,  R.  2. 

Coordinate  Sentences:  318;  various  kinds 
of,  319-333. 

Copulative  Sentences :  319. 


Danish:  479,  H. 

Dative  :  office  of,  189;  as  nearer  object 
after  intrans.  and  certain  compound 
verbs,  190  ;  as  indirect  object  after 
trans,  verbs,  191;  ethical,  193  ;  after 
impers.  verbs,  193  ;  after  adj.,  194  ; 
190 ;  supplanted  by  prepos.  +  case, 
195;  after  prepos.,  303,  305,  306. 

Declension  :  of  articles,  38;  of  nouns,  43- 
68 ;  438-435  ;  of  foreign  nouns,  64, 
63,3;  of  proper  nouns,  65-68;  ofthead- 
jective,  69-73;  of  pronouns,  81-100. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns :  88-91 ;  use  of, 
344-350 ;  origin  of,  443  ;  supplanted 
by  :^ier  and  ba  4-  prepos.,  351,  2. 

Dependent  Clauses,  see  Subordinate. 

Dependent  order  of  words :  341,  344  ; 
in  main  clauses,  347,  349;  the  oldest 
order,  349,  2. 

Dialect :  and  written  language,  390 ;  in 
M.  H.  G.,  485,  2 ;  in  N.  H.  G.,  480, 
487 ;  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  edu- 
cated, 390  ;  and  the  public  school,  393, 
5. 

Diphthongs:  pronunc.  of,  33 ;  analysis  of, 
373  ;  become  single  vowels,  488,  4  •  < 
long  vowels,  488,  5. 

Dutch  :  481,  3  ;  493,  3. 


East  Frankish  :  483,  3 ;  486. 
Elliptical  clauses  and  phrases:  310  ;  384, 

5,  Rem.;  387;  343,  c?,  2. 
English:    479,  III.  ;  493,  4  ;   umlaut  in, 

403,  2. 
Euphony:  418,1. 
Exclamation :  G.  in,  188,  309,  3 ;  order 

of  words  in,  343,  e  ;  see  interjections. 


Final  clauses :  338. 

Flemish  :  481,  3. 

Foreign  nouns :  decl.  of,  64  ;  gender  of, 
163;  verbs,  538. 

Foreign  words  :  spelling  of,  365  ;  ac- 
cent, 437,  430, 1 ;  434,  4 ;  in  G.  word- 
stock,  493-494. 

Fractions :   533,  2. 

Frisian :  481, 1. 

Future :  formation  of,  114  ;  force  of, 
378;  imperative  force  of,  3  78,  3; 
387,  3 ;  present  with  future  force,  374, 
5  ;  condit.  for  subj.  of,  381 ;  origin  of, 
383,4;  379,3. 

Gender :  of  nouns  and  their  distribution 
among  the  declensions  according  to, 
43 ;  syntax  of,  159-169  ;  grammati- 
cal and  sex,  159,  160  ;  concord  of  the 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


same,  165-168  ;  according  to  meaning, 
160;  according  to  endings,  161;  doubt- 
ful and  double,  163 ;  change  of,  161, 
Kem.,  163;  of  compound  nouns,  164; 
concord  of,  165-168;  between  subject 
and  predicate,  313,  316. 

Genitive:  office  of,  180;  various  kinds  of 
G.,  180,  1-7;  partitive  G.  passed  into 
apposition,  181,  351;  supplanted  by 
l)iepos.,  181 ;  dependent  upon  adj., 
83,  183  ;  dependent  upon  verbs  as 
nearer  object,  184;  as  remoter  object, 
185;  after  impersonal  verbs,  186;  ad- 
verbial G.  of  place,  time,  etc.,  187;  sup- 
planted by  A.,  307,  Rem.;  difference  be- 
tween A.  and  G.,  308;  after  prepos., 
303;  in  exclamations,  188. 

German  Dialects  :  classification  of,  480- 
483;  484. 

German  Language :  see  Schriftsprache ; 
history  of,  478-494  ;  relation  to  other 
Germanic  languages,  480-486. 

German  Sounds :  analysis  of,  366-389. 

Germanic  Languages:  relation  to  other 
I.-E.  languages,  477;  characteristics  of , 
478  ;  classification  of,  479-484. 

Gerundive:  107  ;  389,  Rem. ;  398  ;  453. 

Gothic:  letters,  360;  language,  479, 1. 

Grimm's  Law  :  407-415  ;  G.  T.  shifting, 
407-410;  G.  shifting,  413-415;  mod- 
ifications of,  413  ;  in  dialects,  480  ;  in 
derivative  verbs,  535,  1,  R.  2. 

Hessian  :    483,  2. 

High  German  :  explanation  of  terms,  480, 

3,  a.    See  South  German. 
Hildebrantslied  :  485, 1. 

Icelandic:  479,  IT;  339. 1 ;  530. 

Illative  Sentences  :  co-ordinate,  333. 

Imperative :  105,  450 ;  in  strong  verbs, 
131 ;  personal  pron.  m,  386,  1 ;  future 
with  imperative  force,  378,  3  ;  387,  3 ; 
force  of,  386  ;  other  verbal  forms  with 
the  force  of,  387  ;  conditional  and  con- 
cessive force  of,  339, 1 ;  word-order  in, 
343,  b. 

Indefinite  Pronouns :  94-100,445;  use 
of,  359-363. 

Indirect  Speech :  tenses  in,  383;  mood  in, 
385;  335,8;  338. 

Indo-European:  477. 

Infinitive:    106,  451;    nature  of,  388; 

390,  3,  b  ;  perfect,  388, 1  ;  imper.  force 
of,  387,  1 ;  without  and  with  jii,  389- 
391  ;  391,  3-5  ;  without  ,sii,  389,  Rem.; 
after  certain  groups  of  verbs,  390  ;  with 
ju,  do.,  391,  1  ;  as  object  and  subject, 

391,  2,3;  A.  with,  393;  as  a  noun, 
393  ;  governed  by  prepos.  +  },\x,  391, 1 ; 
inf.  clause,  335,  2,  Rem.  3  ;  333, 1;  335, 
1 ;  position  of  two,  in  dependent  clause, 
345,  1 ;  position  of  adjuncts  of,  353. 

Instrumental:  194. 

Interiections:  559,  560. 

Interrogative  Pronouns :  93,  444 ;  use  of, 

351-353  ;   D.  supplanted  by  »Jo(v)    + 

prepos.,  361,  2. 


Interrogative  Sentences :  309,2 ;  indirect, 
335,  2;  disjunctive,  335, 2,  c;  word- 
order,  343,  a. 

Inverted  order  of  words:  341,  343;  in 
inserted  main  clause,  343, 1  ;  origin  of, 
in  conditional  and  in  main  clauses,  348, 
1 ;  after  certain  co-ordinating  conjimc-. 
tions,  319 ;  in  a  clause  instead  of  ob# 
gleic^,  etc.,  339. 

I-stems :  53-55  ;  439, 

Iteratives:  531,  2. 


Jo-stems:  46,2;   438;   in  adj.,  437,  3: 
496,2;  533. 


Kanzleisprache ;  486, 487. 


Labialization,  367, 1 ;  370,  4,  Rem. 

Language :  written.    See  Schriftspracke. 

Law  of  Finals:  478,3. 

Levelling:  nature  of,  491,1 ;  in  the  strong 

pret.,  460;   in  the  weak  verbs,  454, 

455. 
Low  Frankish :  481,  3. 
Low    German   Dialects:    480,   1;    481; 

>  H.  G.,  493,  3 ;  their  relation  to  iha 

written  language,  393, 1-3 ;  391. 
Low  Saxon  :  481,  2. 
Luther:  486,487. 


Middle  Frankish:  483,1. 

Middle  German  Dialects:    480,2;    483; 

488,  3,  a  ;  488,  4. 
Middle  High  German  :  485,  2 ;  transition 

of  sounds  to  N.  H.  G.,  488-491. 
Mi-verbs:  136;  449,1,2;  473-476. 
Modal  Clauses :  333. 
Modal  Auxiliaries.    See  Auxiliaries. 
Mood:   see    subj.,  imper.;    in   adjective 

clauses,  338. 
Multiplicatives :  531, 1. 


N-declension :  of  nouns,  47,  61,  63, 
433-435  ;  of  adjectives,  69.  313,  315. 

Narrowness  of  vowels :  367,2. 

Negatives  :  309, 1 ;  double  negative,  309, 
1 ;  in  comparative  clauses,  333,  2. 

New  High  German  :  485,  486. 

Nominative:  178,179;  absolute,  397; 
predicate.  179;   A.  for,  in  i)rt'd.,  303,  1. 

Normal  order  of  words:  341,343;  in 
subordinate  clauses,  345,  2;  after  co- 
ordinating conjunctions,  343,  2  ;  when 
the  subordinate  clause  precedes,  343,  3;' 
348,  2  ;  343,  c ;  358. 

North  German :  see  Low  Q. 

Norwegian :  479, 11. 

Nouns:  decl.  of,  43-68  ;  systems  of  noun- 
decl.,  43  ;  distribution  of  nouns  among 
the  three  declensions  according  to  gen- 
der, 4.3,  43.3  ;  general  rules  for  noun- 
decl.,  43  ;  strong  decl.  of,  44-60,  438- 
431 ;  weak  decl.  of,   61,  63,  438,  2  { 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


269 


433 ;   mixed  decl.  of,  63,  435, 1 ;  use 

of  cases,  see  individual  cases ;  deriva- 
tion of,  496-510;  composition,  517- 
521 .  gender  of  compound,  164  ;  ac- 
cent of,  431,  433.  See  Number,  Proper 
N.,  Foreign  N.,  Abstract  N.,  Compound. 

Number  :  Singular  and  plural  of  nouns  : 
pi.  the  basis  of  classification  of  strong 
nouns,  '44  ;  no  sign,  45,  a  ;  umlaut, 
45,6;  -e,  49-55;  -er,  56-60,  431; 
(e)n,  61-63 ;  pi.  in  -»,  60 ;  irregular, 
51,  173,  173  ;  double  forms,  58,  163, 
4;  431,  2;  of  abstract  nouns,  171; 
nouns  only  in  pi.,  174. 

Sing,  or  pi.  after  nouns  of  quantity, 
etc.,  175;  why  sing.,  176  ;  sing,  where 
Eng.  pL,  177  ;  sing.  neut.  of  pronouns 
refer  to  masc,  fem.,  and  plural  nouns, 
168,  313. 

Sing,  and  pi.  of  verbs  :  311 ;  pi.  after 
a  collective  noun,  313  ;  "  pi.  of  majes- 
ty," 311,  2. 

Numerals:  77;  infl.  of,  78;  when  in- 
flected, 336,  337;  cardinals,  77-79; 
pi.  in  -e.  337  ;  in  -er,  338,  2  ;  ordinals, 
80,  311,  530,  533  ;  infinitive,  100; 
derivation  of,  539-533. 

Old  High  German  :  485. 

Ordinals :  see  Numerals. 

Orthography  :  division  into  syllables,  36; 
regulated  by  government,  37,  36i,  2  ; 
historical  notes  on,  360-365;  umlaut- 
eigns,  363 ;  on  the  marks  to  show 
length,  363  ;  on  use  of  capitals,  364  ;  of 
foreign  words,  365  ;  government  rules, 
37. 

0-stems  :  lose  sign  of  the  pi.,  47,  51, 
438. 


Participial  Clauses  :  394,4;  333,1. 

Participles  :  103, 107,  453  ;  use  of,  394 
-397  ;  position  of  adjuncts  of,  353. 

Past  part,  without  ge-,  108,  113, 
453,  2;  470,  538;  isolated,  139, 
Rem.;  131, Rem.;  534, 4 ;  imper.  force 
of,  387,  2  ;  passive  force  of,  395  ;  act- 
ive force  of,  395,  2 ;  396  ;  dependent 
upon  fommciij  I^ei^en,  etc.,  396;  of 
verbs  of  motion,  396 ;  absolute  con- 
struction, 397. 

Pres.part.,3  74,6;  383,3,4;  394,453; 
in  compound  tenses,  383,1,  2;  351. 

Passive  :   sec  Voice. 

Perfect :  formation  of,  113 ;  force  of, 
376;  with  future  perf.  force,  379,  2; 
Eng.  perf.  —  G.  pres.,  374,  4  ;  impera- 
tive, 386,  1 ;  infinitive,  388. 

Personal  Pronouns  :  81,  83,  440 ;  syn- 
tax of,  330-335  ;  gender  of,  81  ;  use 
of,  in  address,  330-333  ;  repetition  of, 
333,  2 ;  omission  of,  333,  1  ;  sup- 
planted by  other  pronouns  and  preposi- 
tions, 334  ;  in  the  imper.,  386,  1. 

Phonology  :  360-437  ;  orthography,  360 
-365;   analysis  of  sounds,  366-389; 


as  standard  of  pronunc,  390-393  ;  pho- 
netic laws,  393-417  ;  accent,  418-437. 

Plattdeutsch  :  481,  2,  a  ;  484. 

Pluperfect:  formation  of,  113;  force  of , 
377:  relation  to  Condit.,  380,  381, 
384,  5. 

Plural :  see  Number. 

Popular  Etymology  :  494,  2,  3. 

Possessive  Pronouns  :  85-87  ;  syntax  of, 
339-343  ;  origin  of,  441 ;  compounds 
with,  87;  used  substantively,  340; 
repetition  of,  341,  343,  2 ;  relation  to 
def .  article,  154,  343, 3 ;  supplanted  by 
demonstr.  pron.,  343,  1 ;  uninflected, 
339,  343,  1;  after  G.,  180,  4. 

Predicate,  308 ;  concord  of  subj.  and 
pred.,  311-317  ;  number  of  verb  after 
collective  noun,  313 ;  when  subjects  are 
connected  by  conjunctions,  311,  314  ; 
person  of  verb  when  subjects  are  of  dif- 
ferent persons,  315  ;  position  of,  350, 
351. 

Prepositions :  syntax  of,  301-306  ;  nat- 
ure of,  3<>1,  1,2;  556;  classification 
of,  according  to  cases,  and  treatment  of, 
in  alphabetical  order,  303-306  •  gov- 
eiTiing  the  G.,  303  ;  governing  the  D., 
303;  governing  the  A.,  304  ;  govern- 
ing D.  and  A.,  305  ;  general  position  of, 
357. 

Present;  infl.  of,  103:  of  weak  verbs, 
118,  447  ;  of  strong  verbs,  131,  456 ; 
O.  H.  G.,  446  ;  of  pret.-pres.  verbs, 
134  ;  uses  of,  374  ;  periphrastiCj  374, 
6;  imper.  force,  387,  3;  formation  of 
present-stem,  457. 

Preterit:  infl.  of,  103;  weak,  454; 
strong,  458  ;  levelling  in,  460  ;  double 
subj.,  135,  136.  464, 3  ;  139  ;  of  pret.- 
pres.  verbs,  134,  470;  force  of,  375  ; 
relation  to  condit.,  380,  381,  384,  5; 
ind.  for  unreal  subj.,  340,  3. 

Pret.-pres.  verbs  :  134  ;  135  ;  108,  3 : 
367;  470-473. 

Pronouns:  inflection  of,  81-100,  440- 
445;  syntax  of,  330-363;  concord 
with  noun,  165-168,  335;  origin  ot; 
496 ;  position  of,  in  the  sentence,  353, 
e ;  neut.  pron.  refers  to  masc.  or  fem. 
nouns,  168  ;  neut.  pron.  one  of  two 
accusatives,  199,  1,  2.  See  reciprocal, 
possessive,  etc.,  separately. 

Pronunciation:  of  letters,  1-37,  366; 
standard  of,  390-393 ;  disputed  points 
in  standard,  391 ;  Hanoverian  and  N. 
G.,  390,  4 ;  393,  1-3  ;  dialect  in,  390, 
l-;3. 

Proper  Nouns  :  decl  of,  65-68 ;  article 
before,  147,  155, 1  ;  gender  of,  160,  2, 
with  Rem. ;  164. 


Question :  see  Interrogative  Sentences. 


Reciprocal    Pronouns:    84,    197,    306, 

338. 
Reduplication  :  nature  of,  468 ;  in  VII.  CI. 


270 


SUBJECT-IN"DEX. 


of  verbs,  130,  131 ;  in  the  present, 

457,3. 
Reflexive  Pronouns  :   83,337:  personal 

for,  337,  1. 
Relative  Clauses :  see  Adjective  CI. 
Relative  Pronouns :    93 ;   use    of,    354- 

358 ;    origin  of,   354  ;    supplanted  by 

adverbs  and  conjunctions,  357,   358. 

336,  337. 
Restrictive  Clauses  :  336. 
Roundness  of  vowels:  367,  1:  in  S.  Q., 

391,5. 
Runes,  493,  3. 
Buckumlaut :  403, 2 ;  455. 


Scandinavian,  479,  n. 

Schriftsprache :  390 ;  485,  2f  486,  487. 

Sentence  :  structure  of  simple,  308;  con- 
stituents of,  308  ;  arrangement  of,  see 
word-order:  various  kinds  of  main, 
3Q9  ;  384,  2  ;  386 :  compound,  see  co- 
ordinate and  subordinate. 

Shifting  of  mutes :  see  Grimm's  Law. 

Shifting  of  spirants :  see  Verner's  Law. 

Silesian  :  483,  6. 

Singular :  see  Number. 

Slavic  :  477  ;  481,  2,  Rem. ;  483, 4-6. 

Souancy:  376. 

South  Frankish  :  483,  2. 

South  German  Dialects :  480,  3 ;  483  ; 
488,  5,  a  ;  489 ;  490,  1,  a  ;  relation  to 
the  written  language,  391,  393,  4. 

Suabian :  483,  2. 

Subject :  308 ;  concord  of,  and  predicate, 
311-317  ;  position  of  subject  and  verb, 
341,  356. 

Subjunctive  :  kinds  of,  384  ;  potential, 
384,  3;  335,  2,  Rem.  1 ;  335,  2 ;  338  ; 
in  conditional  clauses,  340,  448. 

Subordinate  Sentences  :  318,  333,  334- 
340;  word-order  in,  343,  c;  344- 
346  ;  350,  Rem.  ;  omission  of  auxil., 
346  ;  position  of,  358. 

Substantive  Clauses:  333-335;  nature 
of,  333;  various  kinds  of,  335  ;  nor- 
mal order  in,  345. 

Superlative:  see  Comparison ;  use  of,  333 
-335  ;  never  uninflected,  333 ;  absolute 
aud  relative,  333;  applied  to  two  ob- 
jects, 335;  of  adverbs,  300,  2. 

Surdness :  376. 

Swedish:  479,  IL 

Swiss  :  483, 1,  a. 


Temporal  Clauses :  330, 

Tenses :  simple,  101,  103,  448 ;  use  of, 
374,  375,  383. 

Compound:  109,  113-116,  376- 
381 ;  origin  of,  383  ;  position  of  sepa- 
rable prefix,  351.  See  the  separate 
tenses. 

Thuriugian :  483,  4. 

Time  :   modes  of  expressing  time,  336 ; 
G.  of,  187  ;  A.  of,  308. 


Umlaut :  signs  of,  31,  363  ;  as  a  sign  ol 
the  pi.,  45,  b\  48  •  in  comparison  o\ 
adj.,  74;  in  pret.  subj.  of  strong  verbs, 
131 ;  in  the  pres.  of  strong  verbs,  137, 
Rem.;  139,  Rem.  ;  130,  Rem.;  131, 
Rem. :  404  ;  nature  of,  401  ;  in  Eng., 
403,  2 ;  spread  of,  488,  1 ;  in  derived 
verbs,  535.  , 

Upper  Saxon  :  483,  5. 

Variatives:  533. 

Verb :  principal  parts  of,  103 ;  infl.  of, 
103  ;  personal  suffixes  of,  104,  118, 
131,  449  ;  classification  of,  364  ;  ir- 
regular weak,  119,  454,  455;  weak 
verbs  are  derivative,  117, 1. 

Reduplicating:  130,  131,458;  non- 
thematic,  see  mi-verbs :  anomalous, 
134-136. 

Compound  :    137 ;  D.  after,  190  ;  A. 
after,  198,  54  7-550;  accent  in,  421. 
Reflexive,  138  ;  197  ;  306  ;  336,  2; 
304. 

Impersonal:  subject  of,  336, 1,  2,  5; 
cases  after,  180,  193,  305  ;  G.  after, 
184-186  ;  D.  after,  189-193  ;  D.  or  A. 
after,  196,  300  ;  A.  after,  198  ;  two  A., 
199,  301;  neuter,  179;  trans.,  191, 
364 ;  intrans.,  364! 

V.  of  motion  :  comp.  tense  of,  365,  4; 
366  ;  383,  3  ;  390,  2  ;  past  part,  of, 
396;  see  Number,  Predicate,  auxil., 
pret.  pres.  verbs  ;  person  of,  in  relative 
clauses,  336  ;  position  of,  341,  350, 
Rem.  ;  derivation  of,  .534-550. 

Verner's  Law  :  411,  413,  416. 

Voice:  passive,  infl.  of,  116;  construc- 
tion in,  179.2;  303,  2;  368-373; 
replaced  by  reflexive  construction,  373  ; 
origin  of,  373  ;  in  Go.,  383,  1. 

Vowel-declension  :  see  Noun,  strong ; 
438-431. 

Vowels:  quantity  of,  33-35,  488,  2,  &; 
analysis  and  description  of,  367-373; 
vowel-table,  p.  162 ;  general  remai-ks 
upon,  373;  doubling  of,  33,363,4; 
connecting  v.  in  conjugation,  118; 
449,  2 ;  454,  2,  3  ;  in  ablaut,  393- 
400  ;  in  umlaut,  401,  403,  4<sl  ;  in- 
terchanges  of,  403-406;  lengthening 
of,  in  W.  H.  G.,  488,  2  ;  shortening  of, 
488,  3 ;  diphthongization  of  long  v., 
488,  5. 

Vowel-stems :  see  Vowel-Declension. 


Wordformation  :  495-559;  substan- 
tives, 495-531 ;  pronouns,  496  ;  ad- 
jectives, 533-533  ;  verbs,  534-550  ; 
adverbs,  i)repositions,  conjunctions, 
551-558 ;  interjections,  559. 

Word-order:  341-359;  normal,  343; 
inverted,  343 ;  dependent,  344.  See 
these  separate  heads;  in  poetry  and 
prose,  359. 

Word-stock:  493-494. 


WORD-INDEX   AND   GERMAN-ENGLISH 
VOCABULARY. 


The  first  contains  a  list  of  the  German  and  English  words,  prefixes  and  suffixes 
specially  treated  in  the  grammar.  Also  the  strong  and  irregular  verbs  with  the  princi- 
pal parts,  and  the  second  or  third  pers.  sing,  of  the  pres.  ind,  and  the  imperative  sing., 
if  they  are  at  all  peculiar. 

The  umlauts  have  a  separate  place,  h  after  a,  5  after  o,  n  after  u. 

The  numbers  refer  to  the  paragraphs.  I.,  II.,  III.,  etc.,  mean  the  strong  verb-classes 
and  ablaut  series. 

After  the  substantives  the  gender  (m., '«.,/.)  and  the  plural  ending  are  always  indi- 
cated of  the  strong  nouns,  the  gender  and  w.  (—  weak)  are  given  after  the  weak  nouns. 
When  there  is  no  pi.  sign  at  all,  it  is  indicated  by  -.  When  the  cognate  Eng.  word  is 
rare,  or  when  its  meaning  differs  quite  widely  from  the  German  word,  it  is  placed  after 
the  common  Eng.  meaning. 

The  vocabulary  is  meant  to  cover  all  untranslated  single  words  and  illustrative  sen- 
tences as  far  as  §  147,  except  the  foreign  words  63,  3:  63,  2;  64. 

If  weak  verbs  must  have  the  connecting  vowel  this  is  indicated  by  the  preterit. 
-  after  a  word  means  a  prefix  in  composition,  before  a  word  it  means  a  suffix. 


51. 

a,  pronunc.  of,  3;  description  of,  371,  4; 

quantity  of,  before  r,  rt,  rb,  33,  488,  2 ; 

in  ablauts.,  VI.,  459,  4;  in  ablauts.  I.- 

V.,  4.5f>. 
a,  in  Engl,  phrase  "  so  much  a  pound," 

156. 
?la§,  n.,  pi.  2lier,  carrion. 
ab,  from,  303,  1;  516,  1. 
a5ev,  but,  60,  +  word-order,  343,  2  ;  356; 

comj)ared  with  fonbern,  330,  2  E 
mzx-f  516,  1. 
oB^anben,  lost,  439, 1. 
ab'f(i)reiben,  to  copy,  see  fd)vet6cn. 
?t6t,  m.,  "^e,  + abbot, 
ac^,  alas,  60;  559,  1. 
adjtcn,  with  G.,  to  attend  to,  in  83;  (ad^^ 

tete). 
ae,  as  sign  of  umlaut  of  a,  363,  2. 
acu  as  sign  of  umlaut,  363,  2. 
Sifter-,  516.  2. 
-age,  noun-suffix;    fem.  gender,  161,  3: 

163,  5. 
at,  pronunc.  of,  33,  373.  1. 
aa,  +  all,  100;  def.  art.  after,  144;  neuter, 

168;  use  of,  361;  accent,  433,5. 
attein,  co/y.,  but;  +  word-order,  343, d, 
otter-, -f-superl.,  333;  accent,  433, 1,  6. 


attetbingg,  certainly,  553,  1. 
allerlte'oft,   charming,  very  lovely,  333  ; 
433,  +  Shakspere'8  cUderliefest. 

aEma^Iic^,  gradually,  536,  3,  c. 

aK,  before  a  predicate  noun,  179  ;  in  ap- 
position, 317;  before  a  relative  pronoun, 
33  7,  3  ;  in  temporal  clauses,  330,  1; 
in  comparative  clauses,  333,  343,  c ; 
after  comparative,  333,  2 ;  after  adjec- 
tives, nic&t'o,  aubcr-,  333,  2,  «,  3 ;  +  baft, 
333,3. 

alt,  +  old,  etym.,  453,  1. 

?tltev,  n.,  -,  age,  old  age. 

om  <  an  bem,  +on  the,  40. 

-am,  noun-suf.,  501. 

3lmt,  /I.,  -er,  etym.,  516,  3. 

an,  +  on,  305,  3;  306, 1,  2;  compared  with 
auf,  300,  2. 

an  <  an  ben,  40. 

on'Btnben,  to  tie,  see  binben. 

-anb,  noun-suffix,  505. 

anber-, -I- other,  94  ;  accent  in  comp.,433, 
1;  etym..,  445,  3;  in  comp.,  530. 

anbevt^alb  =  li,  530. 

5tnmut,/.,  no  pi.,  grace;  gender,  164,  a. 

an'fci^rcitcn,  to  write  down,  charge,  see 
fi^veiben. 


272      WORD-INDEX   AKD   GERMAK-EKGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


anfiatt,  + instead  of,  303,  1;  +3uandinf., 

291,  1,  R.:  333,  1. 
2tnt-,  516,  3. 
-ant,  505. 

SlntiBort,  /.,  w.,  +  answer;  gender,  164,  e. 
2lrm,  m.,  -e,  +  arm. 

Slrmut,  /.,  nopl.^  poverty;  gender,  164,  a. 
-at,  511,  2,  a;   in  neut.  foreign  nouns, 

163,  1. 
Sltcm,  m.,  -8,  noyl.,  breath,  47,  1;  501. 
atmen,  tobreatlie,  118, 1;  (atmcte). 
au,  pronunc.  of,  33  ;  analysis  of,  373,  2; 

origin  of,  488,  5;  490,  6. 
au(^,  also,  +  eke  ;  in  relat.  clause,  93,  4 ; 

with  reenn,  ob,  339. 
auf,  +  upon,  305,  3  ;  compared  with  an, 

300,  2;  +t)a^,  in  order  that,  338. 
ou'fevfte^^en,  to  rise  again,  546,  2. 
au'frt(!^ten,  to  erect,  (-rt(J)tete). 
9luge,  w.,  -8,  -n,  +  eye. 
a-umlaut,  see  ft,  e. 
au§,  +  outof,  303,2. 
aufeer,  besides,  303,  3  ;  +'ti<x%  336. 
2lst,  /,  -,+axe,  491,  2;  513,  2. 
a,  pronunc,  of,  31  ;  363  ;    371,  2,  R.  3  ; 

see  umlaut, 
ft^cn,  to  bait,  corrode,  +  etch,  535,  1,  R.  2. 
ftu,  pronunc.  of,  33;  3  73,  3;  origin  of, 

488,  5. 
au|cr-,  + outer,  76,  2. 


B,  pronunc.  of,  4;  description  of,  385,  2; 
final,  385,  3;  „I)avte§''  b,  383,  1,  R.; 
393,  2;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  408,  8; 
413,  2;  490,  6. 

!>-,  seebe-;  557,1;  414,3. 

bacfen,  Buf,  gebaden,  +bake,VI.,]  39 ;  (barfft, 

Mfe) ;  in  comp.,  538. 
93ab,  n..  -e§,  -cr, +bath. 
a3aHe(n),  m.,  -,  beam,  46,  4. 
^anfc,  w.,  58;  m.,  163,  4;  496. 
Sanbe,  /.,  w.,  +  band  (of  robbers,  etc.). 
-bar,  a(ij.-suffix^  536,  1  ;    accent,    434, 

1,&. 
bavm!)e'v5tg,  merciful;  accent,  433,  3. 
ba|,  more,  very,+better,  76;  etym.,  439. 
93aucr,  m.,  w.^  farmer,  63,  2  ;  63;  strong, 

-,  builder;  n.,  -,  cage. 
93au,  m.,  -e,  see  also  51. 
Saum,  m.,  -e,  tree, +beam. 
93 &r,  m.,  w.,+bear. 

be-,+be-,  by,  108,  3;  540, 1;  see  bei. 
bebeu,  tremble,  etym.^  457,  3. 
bebarf,  see  bebiivfen. 
bebeden,  to  cover, + deck, 
bebient,  etym.,  395,  2. 
bebingt,  past  part.,  conditioned,  135, 1. 
bebiirfen,  +  G.,  to  need;  for  infl.  see  135, 2. 
befe^^Ien,  befall,  befo^len,  to  command,  IV., 

137;  (befieWt;  befiet)t,  bcfot^Io). 
93efefttgung, /.,  w.,  fortification, 
beflet^en,  befii^,  beftifjen,  I.,  133, 1;  refl.,  to 

apply  oneself  to  ;  (bu  beflctjjeft,  bu  or  er 

bepei^t). 
befrcunben,  +  befriend;  (befreunbete). 


begeben,  refl.,  +  G.,  to  give  up,  540, 4;  see 

geben. 
beginncn,   begann,  begonnen,  +  begin.  III., 

135,  2  ;  454,  3  ;  457,  2  ;  (begonne). 
be^aupten,  to  assert,  540,  4 ;  (be^auptete). 
bei, +by,  near,  303,  4;  in  comp.,  516,4. 
beib-,  +  both,  100;  use  of,  338. 
93ein,  n.,  -c,  leg,  +  bone, 
beifammen,  together,  in  the  presence  of. 
bei^en,  bt^,  gebiftcn,  +  bite,  I.,  133,  l ;  (bu 

bei^eft,  bu  or  er  bei^t). 
beuen,  +  to  bait,  cauterize;  etym..  535, 1, 

R.  2. 
belejen,  past  part.,  well  read,  540,  3. 
beEen,  bolt,  gebDUen,+  to  bark,  VIII.,  133; 

{w.  and  btttft). 
bene^men,  take  away,  540,  4;  see  ncljmen. 
bequem,  convenient,  comfortable, + becom- 
ing; 409,3. 
bergen,  bavg,  geborgcn,  hide.  III.,  135,  3 ; 

397;  (bivgft,  birg,  b&rge  and  biirge). 
beritten,  past  part.,  mounted;  534,  4.' 
bevften,  barft,  gebDrften,  + burst.  III.,  135,3; 

(bu  birfteft,  bu  or  cv  birft,  bivft  or  bcrfte ; 

borfte  or  barfte). 
93e^agt(er),  the  afore  +  said  146, 1. 
bef(i}ciben,  modest,  past  part.,  534,  4. 
beifer,  beft,  +  better,  best,   76,  1 ;   439  ; 

300,  2. 
befud^t,  frequented,  74. 
beten,  to  pray;  (betete). 
SetrfibniS,/.  or  w.,  -iffe,  sadness,  grief. 
33ett,  ?^.,  -c3,  -en,  +  bed;  ju  —  +to  —  or 

in  — . 
beugen, +bow  488,  5. 
beiucgen,  bereog,  bereogen,  to  induce,  VIII., 

133 ;  (bewegft,  bewege). 
bid,  Eng.,  396. 
biegen,  bog,  gcbogcn,  bend,  II.,  134,  2;  (bu 

beugft,  rare). 
93iene,  /".,  w.,  4-bee,  455,  2. 
bteten,*bDt,  geboten,  offer,  11.,  134,  2;  396; 

408,  2;  (ev  bietct  and  beut). 
binben,  banb,  gcbunben,  +  bind,  III.,  135,1; 

496;  (er  binbet). 
binnen,  within,  303,  5;  557,  1. 
SSinfe,  /.,  w.,  +  bentgrass,  490,  3. 
93ivne, /.,  w.,  +pear,  435,  3. 
bt6,  till,  until,  prepos.,  304, 1 ;  conj.y  330, 

3;  etym..  557,  1. 
bitten,  bat,  gebctcn,  ask,  +  bid;  V.,  138,  2; 

199;  333,  1;  457,  1;  466;  (cr  bittct). 
blanf,  shining,  74. 
btafen,  btteS,  gebla^en,  blow,  VII.,  130,  1; 

(bu  bia^eft,  bu  or  ev  blSft). 
bla^,  pale,  74. 

93latt,  w.,  -c8,  -i^ev,  leaf,  +biade. 
btau,+blue,  74. 

biattern,  to  turn  the  leaves  of  a  book. 
93Iet,  n.,  no  pL,  lead, 
bletben,  blieb,  gcblieben,  remain,  I.,  133,2; 

+  inf.,  390,  3. 
blei(i^en,  bticf),  geblict)en,+bleach,  I.,  133,  1. 
93iate,  +  blowth,  blossom  ;  etym.,  430,  1. 
SSote,  m,,  w.,  messenger. 
93DDt,  n.,pl.  936te,+boat. 
936fen)ic^t,  wi.,  pi.  -e  ov  -er,  rascal,  5  7,  3 ; 

59. 


WORD-IKDEX   AKD   GERMAI^-EKGLISH   VOCABULARY.      273 


93rannttvctn,  m.,  -?,+brandy. 

fcvaten,  biict,  gcbraten,  roast,  fry,  VII.,  i;50, 

1;  (bratft,  trat). 
brau^en,    need,    compared  with    iiiu^fen, 

867,  4. 
93raut,  /.,  -e,  +  bride. 
SBrautigam,  m.,  -e,+ bridegroom,  439, 1. 
bre(^en,  fcvad},  gcbvo(I)eu,  + break,  IV.,  137; 

(bii  brict)ft,  tvtd}). 
bvennen,  brannte,  gebvonnt,  +  burn,  11J>,  1; 

455;  (bveunte). 
bringen,  bvad)te,  gebrad)t,  +  bring,  119,  1; 

454,  2;  (brii^te). 
93ronn,  m.,  for  aSronnen,   Srunnan,  well, 

spring,  +  bourn,  489,  4;  46,  4. 
SStojam,  m.,  -e,  crumb ;   23vofame,  /.,  w., 

47,1;  501. 
93rDt,  n.,  -e,  sometimes  — e,  +  bread. 
23ruber,  m.,   —,  +  brother,  46,  48,  411, 

415. 
aSrunnen,  see  93vonn. 
33ucfe,  w.,  -er,  +  book. 
93uUe,+  bull,  see  163,3. 
bunt,  variegated,  74,  5. 
iBurg,/.,  w.,  castle,  397;  in  comp.,  164,  c. 
aSurfti^,  /w.,  -e,  and  w.,  fellow. 


c,  pronurc.  of,  5;  in  foreign  words, 389,  3. 

6afu§Ie()ve,  /.,  w.,  theory  of  the  cases  (of 
nouns). 

causeway,  causey,  +Sfjauftee,  494,  3. 

^,  prouunc.  of,  6;  375,4;  378,3;  383. 
1;  description  of,  375;  quantity  of  vowel 
before,  35;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  410, 
3 ;  414,  3  ;  415,  1,  3  ;  490,  3  ;  d)-  g, 
416;  ^-f,  493,4;  c^  -  f,  535,  1,  R.  2. 

ch,  Ger.  correspond,  of,  414,  3;  535,  1, 
R.  2. 

-c^en,  +  -kin,  46, 1;  493,  4;  510;  neuter 
gend.,  161,  3;  pronuuc.  of,  6;  375,  2. 

-(fte(n),  in  verbs,  536, 1. 

Spvtft,  w.,  ?<;.,  + Christian,  435,  3. 

choose, +  fieyen,  416, 1. 

*f,  c^g,  pronunc.  of,  39,  383, 1;  490,  3,  a. 

a,  14  ;  383,  1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of, 
413,  4;  414,  3;  d  —  (^,  535,  1,  R.  3. 


b,  pronunc.  of,  7,  385,  3;  description  of, 
384,  2.  Eng.  correspondents  of,  410, 1; 
413,  1,  a;  415;  b  —  t,  416. 

-b,  511, 1. 

'ba,  +  there,  adv.',  before  a  prepos.  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel,  bar;  in  relat.  clause, 
358,  337,  2  ;  in  local  clauses,  331,  a  ; 
=  because,  since  in  causal  clauses,  337; 
—  as,  when  in  temporal  clauses,  330, 1, 
2;  etym..  551,  1;  after  demonstr.  pron., 
345,  3. 

'^a^in.,  -er,  roof,  +  thatch. 

ba(i^te,  see  benfen,  also  417,  1. 

®ame,  /.,  w.,  lady,  H-dame. 

bami't,  coj^'.j  "^  order  that,  338. 


ba'niit, +  bai3  =by  +  part.  clause,  337 

®ant,  m.,  -c^  ;  pi.  of,  see  173. 

bavf,  see  bi'ivfcu. 

ba§, +that;  seebcv;  peculiar  use  of ,  168; 

for  G.,  183. 
ba^,  +  that,  conj. ;  in  substantive  clauses, 

335  ;   +  ni(^t  =  without  +  part,  clause, 

333  ;   in  other  adverbial  clauses,  335, 

336,  338. 
bau^t,  see  bciid)t. 
-be,  noun-suffix,  511,2. 
®e^nung^4),  363,  2.  3. 
bein,  G.  of  bu,  81  ;    possessive  pronoun, 

beinev,  G.,  see  bein. 

bemungea^tet,  notwithstanding,  ^rgp.,  303, 

benfen/bad^te,  geba(^t,+think,  119.2;  403, 
2;  454,  3;  (bad)te).  Inf.  as  noun,  ba6 
©enfen. 

©entmal,  n.,  monument;  for  pi.  see  58. 

benn,  +  then,  for,  301,  1 ;  causal  conjunc- 
tion, 331,  337;  after  comparative,  333, 
2;  in  restrictive  clauses,  336;  origin  of, 
551,  1. 

ber,  +  the,  def.  art.,  38-40 ;  demonstr. 
pronoun  88,  443;  lengthened  forms  in 
en,  er,  344,  2;  relat.  pronoun,  93. 

berart  ba^,  so  that,  335. 

beren  (G.  pL),  88,  93. 1;  use  of.  344, 1. 

berent-,  87,  89. 

be-'rgeftaU  ba|,  in  such  a  manner  that,  335. 

berer,  see  beren. 

berienige,  he,  that  one,  91,  1;  347. 

bero,  89,  443. 

berfelbe,  -yelbigc,  the  same,  91. 

beraetl,  +  while,  330. 

be§,  be|,  beften,  89. 

be^ent-,  89. 

befto,  +  the,  443,  a;  correlative  of  \e, 
364. 

beudjt  <  biinten,  119,2;  454,  3. 

beutf(^,  German  (  +  Dutch),  413,  1,  a. 

®eutjd&lanb,  n.,  Germany. 

-dge,  Ger.  correspondents  of,  413,  4. 

®u!^tev,  m..  -,  poet. 

btc^, +  thee.  Ace.  of  bu,  q.  v. 

bie, +  the,  fem.  def.  art.,  see  ber. 

bie§,  bteKer),  +  this,  90 ;  etym.,  44.3  ;  use 
of,  345,  346;  bieg  unb  bag,  jcneg,  345,2; 
supplanted  by  adverb  +  prepos.,  346. 

biewcil,  +  while,  330;  because,  337, 1. 

®ing,  W..  + thing;  for^^.  see58. 

bingen,  bang  or  bung,  gebungen,  III.,  135,1. 

bir,  +thee,  D.  of  bu,  q.  v. 

bD(|,  adv.,  yet,  after  all, + though,  343,  e. 

©oftor,  m.,  -§,  pi.  -Cren,  63,  2. 

boppeI-,+ double,  531,  1. 

■Drangfal,  /.,  -e,  distress. 

brejc^en,  braf(^  or  brcfc^,  gebvDy(^en,+ thresh, 
III.,  135,  3  ,  133  ;  (brafc^e  or  brofc^e, 
brifc^eft,  bu  and  er  brif^t,  brifd},  also  weak, 
brefciefl,  brey(^e). 

bringen,  btang,  gebrungen,  to  penetrate,  III., 
135, 1;  (brange). 

britt-,  +  third,  410,  1;  530. 


brudcn,  to  print  \  kqk  « 
bvaden,  to  press  \  ^"^^^  ^' 


274      WORD-I?TDEX    AliTD   GERMAN-EN^GLISH  VOCABULARY. 


bumpf,   hollow  (sound),  +  dnmp,    mnsty 

(air),  74,  5. 
bunfel,  dark,  compar.  buuflcv. 
bur(^,  +  throufjh,  304,  2 ;   compar,  with 

Bon,  369 ;  with  niittcI-S  and  luit,  302,  7  ; 

separable  and   insep.  prefix  in   comp. 

verbs,  549,  1. 
©iirc^lauc^t, /.,  w.^  Serene  Highness, 
bftnfen,   biintte,    gcbunft,   impers.   verb,    it 

seems,  +  (me)  thinks,  119,  2;  454,  3. 
buvfen,  buvfte,  gebuvft,  to  be  permitted;  infl., 

135,  2;  past  part.,  108,  2;  use  of,  267, 

2;  etym.,  416. 


c,  pronnnc.  of ,  8  ;  description  of,  371, 1- 
3;  unaccented,  371,  3;  485,2;  sign  of 
length,  33,  363, 1 ;  sign  of  umlaut,  362 ; 
before  t,  rt,  rb,  33,  488,  2;  sign  of  plu- 
ral, 47,  49,  51,  52;  in  cardinals,  227; 
in  the  adj. -suffixes  -et,  -ex,  -en,  71;  con- 
necting vowels  in  conjugation,  118  ; 
in  case-suffix,  43,  46 ;  derivative  c  in 
verbs,  535,  536 ;  secondary  before  r, 
491,2;  e  -i,  te,  127, 128,  403;  e  -  i3, 
489,1. 

-e  in  imperative,  105;  118,  3. 

-e  in  nouns  <  adj.,  498, 1;  gender  of  such 
nouns,  161,  2. 

-e  in  jo-stems,  46,  47,  51,  437,  3  ;  498, 
2;  gender  of  such  nouns,  161,  3. 

-e  in  adverbs,  554,  1. 

ed)t,  genuine,  etym.,  488,  3,  a. 

G(fe,/.,  w.,  comer, +  edge,  413,  4. 

ebel,  noble,  404,  71. 

e^e,  before,  +  ere,  76,  2,  b ;  439,  2  ;  cory., 
330,  3. 

ei,  pronunc.  of,  32  ;  analysis  of,  372,  3; 
origin  of,  488,  5. 

-et,  noun-suffix,  498,  3 ;  gender  of  such 
nouns,  161,2. 

©ibam,  m.,  -e,  son-in-law,  47, 1 ;  501. 

-eieu,  verb-suffix  <  French  verbs  in  -ier, 
538 

etgen,+own,  ac^.,  470;  471,  6;  524,  4. 

eigentumlid),  accent  and  meaning,  422,  2. 

eilen,  to  hasten. 

eim  <  einem,  D.  of  ein,  q.  v.,  41, 1. 

(Simer,  pail,  etym.,  398. 

ein,  +a,  one,  indef.  art.,  38, 41;  after  weld), 
rcag  fiir,  92,  2,  3;  indef.  pronoun,  72, 
95,  259,  200;  ein  pav,  ein  «?enig,  a  few, 
a  nttle,  100. 

ein,  adv.,  +  in;  —  unb  au§,  +  in  and  out; 
528,  7. 

einanber,  +  one  another;  uninflected,  84. 

eingefeoren,  for  two  meanings  see  528,  5, 7. 

einig-,  indef.  pron.,  some,  95  ;  ac?/.,  + 
united. 

einmal,  +once,  39,  41, 

el'nne^men,  take  possession  of,  see  ne^men. 
In  85  genommen  ein  for  eingenommen  by 
poetic  license. 

Ginobe,/.,  w.,  solitude,  desert,  511,  a. 

cing,  -1-  one,  531,  2;  for  cognate  Ace, 
304. 


einft,+once,  531,  2;  555,  2. 

ei^nftubie^-cn,  to  study  well,  commit  to 
memory. 

einjeln,  adv.,  singly,  555,  3. 

eitet,  vain;  uninflected  "nothing  but," 
212,1. 

-et,  noun-suffix,  46,  428,  5;  499;  gentler 
of  such  nouns,  161,  1;  161,  3;  adj.-suf- 
fix,  71,  523   1;  verb-suffix,  106. 

etenb,  wretched  ;  etym.,  401,  among  Ex- 
amples. 

elf,  +  eleven,  77;  529. 

elk,  +  (Sid;,  ISlenttev,  490,  3. 

-ein,  in  verbs,  536 ;  connecting  vowel 
in  -,  118,3. 

eitern,  parents,  +  elders,  1 74,  404. 

-em  in  nouns,  501,  523,  2., 

emp-<  ent-,  541. 

empte^Ien,  empfal^I,  empfo^ten,  recommend. 
IV.,  127;  464,3;  (empfii^Ie, buempne^Ift, 
empfie'^l). 

-en,  noun-suffix,  46;  428,  5;  501;  502  ; 
indicates  masc.  gend.,  160,  1 ;  in  the 
n-declension,  61,  62  ;  in  the  pi,  of  for- 
eign nouns,  64,  2,  3 ;  in  D.  and  A.  of 
proper  nouns,  66;  in  G,  sg.  of  adj.  for 
e§,  72;  91,  3;  216,  1;  in  pronouns, 
244,  2  ;  440,  2  ;  in  mixed  declension, 
63;  in  comp.  nouns,  518, 1,  2. 

Adj.-suffix,  71;  211;  524.  In  the 
past  part.,  107;  453;  502;  524.  In 
the  inf.,  106;  451.    In  adverbs,  551. 

-enb  (nb),  in  the  pres.  part.,  107;  in  nouns, 
505;  in  the  gerund,  107. 

(Snbe,  n.,  -§,  -n,  +  end. 

enge,  narrow,  408,  4. 

Gnget,  m.,  -,+ angel. 

-eng,  adv.-suffix,  5.55,  2 

ent-,  541. 

(Snte,  duck,  430, 1. 

entgegcn,  +  against,  "to  meet,"  303,  6; 
557,  1;  see  gegen. 

entfagen,  to  renounce. 

enticebcr  (—  cbcr),  +  either  —  or,  343,  c?,  2; 
558. 

er,  he,  81. 

er  for  §evr,  gentleman,  Mr.,  230,  S. 

-er,  noun-suffix,  428,  5;  65,  507;  indi- 
cates masc.  gend.,  161,  1;  163,3;  as 
sign  of  plural,  56,  4.31, 

Adj, -suffix,  71,  523,  3;  507,  2;  in  ad- 
verbs, 551  ;  556;  compar.  suffix,  79; 
438  ;  in  the  G.  of  pronouns,  82,  88, 
244,  2 ;  440,  2 ;  in  verbs,  see  -em, 

er-,  542. 

(Sr6e,  double  gender,  162,  3;  neut.  pi.  6rtie 
is  rare. 

(Si-be,/.,  w.,  + earth,  62,  R. 

-erei,  noun-suffix,  497,  3,  R. 

erbafcen,  lofty,  129,  R.;  524,  4. 

ertalten,  to  grow  cold  l  K-ir;  o 

erfaiten,  ref.,  to  catch  cold  j '^**  '  ''• 

-eriid),  adj.-suffix,  526,  3,  c. 

evlijic^en,  evIof(^,  evlo^ii^en,  to  go  out  (candle, 
fire),  VIII.,  133;  (evlij(^eft,  bu  and  ev  er= 
Iifd;t,  erltfc^). 

-ern,  adj.-suffix,  684,  3;  adj.  in  — ,  unin- 
flected, 211. 


WORD-Il^DEX   AND  GERMAN-EN^GLISH  VOCABULARY.      275 


-er(n),  verb-suffix,  537,  2  ;  connecting 
vowel  in,  118,  3. 

enet(^en,+ reach,  attain. 

erfc^allen,  ex'i^oU,  cric^oUen,  resound,  VIII., 
133  ;  (eg  erf(^aUt). 

erjc^vedeu,  erjdjraf,  ovfctjvDcfen,  to  be  fright- 
ened, IV.,  ia7;  (crji^ridft,  erii^vid);  when 
trans,  generally  weak. 

evft,  first,  +  erst,  76,  2,  6;  439,  2. 

erwagcn,  erwog,  cnuogen,  consider,  VIII., 
133  ;  (erraigft). 

erwa^nen,  to  mention  ;  etytn.,  457,  2. 

(Srj-  +  arch-,  516,6. 

eg,  +  it,  N.  and  A.  sg  neut.,  81;  peculiar 
uses  of,  236  ;  gender,  168  ;  replacing 
cognate  A.,  304  ;  336,  6  ;  G.  of  masc. 
and  neuter,  83  ;  183;  A.  supplanted  by 
propos.,  334,1;  indefinite  subject,  336, 
1,2,4,  5;  grammatical  subject  and  exple- 
tive =  there,  336,  3:  313;  position  of 
eg  (A.),  353,  e ;  eg  (N.)  and  inversion, 
336,  3,  a. 

eg  fei  beun,  ba^,  unless,  339;  340,  2. 

effen,  a^,  gecjeffeit+eat,  V.,  138,  1;  (bu  tffc^ 
or  i^t,  er  i^t,  i^) ;  pres.  part.,  394,  1 ; 
etym.,  409, 1;  466. 

(Sffig,  vinegar,  +  acid,  509. 

etti($-  some,  96. 

etwacv  something,  anything,  somewhat, 
96;  199,  1;  360. 

eu,  pronunc.  of,  33  ;  analys.  of,  373,  3  ; 
origin  of,  488,  5;  eu  —  ie,  406. 

eu(^+you,  D.  and  A.  of  i^r,  q.  v.,  81;  refl., 
83;  reciprocal,  84;  338. 

euer+your,  possessive  pron.,  85. 

eurev  for  euer  (G.),  83. 

ew.+your,  86;  311,  2. 


3f. 

f,  pronunc.  of,  9 ;  description  of,  380 ; 
Eng.  correspondents  of,  410,  2;  414,  2; 
415,  1 ;  493,  4;  f  —  b,  416. 

-fa^, -fold,  531, 1. 

'^a6),n.,  -er  (and-e);  compartment,  pigeon- 
hole; 

gaben,  m.,  pi.  and  meanings,  see  48, 1. 

faben,  archaic  for  fangen,  o.v.:  417,  1; 
458,  2. 

^ai)xen,  ^nhv,  gefa^^ren,  drive,  +  fare,  VI., 
139;  400;  467;  +ypa3teren,  390,  2; 

ga^rt,/.,  w.,  journey,  ride,  430, 1,  a. 
faCen,  fiel,  gefatlen,  +  fall,  VII.,   130,  1 ; 

458,2;  (fallft). 
^aUg,  adverbial  G.  in  comp.,  =  case,  91, 3; 

conj.,  340. 
talfd)  +  false,  74,  5. 
fangen,  fing,  gefangen,  to  catch,  VII.,  130, 

1;  (fingft). 
far  +  fern,  76,2. 

faj'fen,  to  seize,  (bu  faffefl  or  fa|t),  118,  4. 
faft,  almost,  300, 1;  554,  1, 
fautenjen,  to  be  lazy,  539,  3,  a. 
ga^rte,/.,  w.,  trade,  430, 1,  a. 
fiUen,  to  fell,  535, 1,  a. 
-filtig  +  -fold,  531, 1. 


fe^ten,  fo^t,  gefoi^tcn  +  fight,  VIIL,  133  ; 

(bu  fid^tft,  fi^t,  also  weak), 
gebev,/.,  2^;.,  +  feather,  pen. 
te^len+fail,  lack,  494, 
geinb,  tn.,  -e,  enemy,  +  fiend,  505;  partial 

ac0.,  319. 
(velb,  n.,  -er,  field. 
Self,  m.,w.,  j       ,    4g  4 

feft,  firm,  554, 1. 

jVeuer,  w.,+fire;  pi.  of,  173. 

gi(J)tctgebirge,  n.,  a  mountain  range  in  N.  E. 

Bavaria,  <  bie  gi^te,  fir. 
finben,  fanb,  getunben  +  find.  III.,  135, 1; 

464;  (finbeft). 
gint,  m.,  w.,+ finch. 

ftf(^cn+fish  (bu  fi^cfecft  or  fii(^t,  er  fifd^t),  118. 
gtnfternig,  /.,  -niffe,  darkness. 
ilait),  shallow,  level,  74,  5. 
flecbten,  tlD(|t,  gefloi^ten,  to  braid,  VIII.,  133; 

(bu  fli(^t[t  or  flid}ft,  er  flidst,  flt^t  or  ftec^te). 
glejiongtetjre,  /.,  w.,  accidence, 
piegen,  flog,   geflcgen,  +  fly,  II.,  134,   2 ; 

(Peugft,  fleug  are  archaic), 
flie^en,  Pi^f),   geflof^cn,  +  flee,  II.,  134,  2 ; 

490,  3,  b;  (fteud)ftr  fleud)  are  archaic). 
fCte^en,  flojj,  gejTc^cn,  II.,  134, 1    535,  1,  a ; 

(bu,  er  Peu^t,  archaic). 
5Io^,  «.,  -e,+raft,  54  ;  439, 1. 
ftopen  +  to  float,  trans.,  535,  1,  a. 
5oIgenb(e'?)  +the  following,  146,  1. 
forlorn,  416,  1. 
fort  +  forth,  on,  76,2. 
fr-,  545;  see  cer-. 

fragen,  fvug,  to  ask,  139;  457,2;  construc- 
tion after,  199. 
grau,  f.,w.,  woman,  wife,  Mrs. 
grauenjimmer,  n.,  -,  lady;  166. 
gvJuIein,  n.,  -,  young  lady.  Miss,  166. 
frei  +  free. 
freilt^,  to  be  sure,  300,  1;   339;   554, 

2.  a. 
freffen,  fra^,  gefreffen,+  eat,  V.,  see  effen ; 

108,  3;  138, 1. 
gveunb,  m.,  -e,  + friend,  505. 
ber  5riebe(n),  m.,  no  pi.,  peace,  46,  4: 

47,  2. 
frieren,  fror,  gefvoren,  to  freeze,  II.,  134,? 
fro:^,  cheerful,  74,  5. 
fromin,  pious;  harmless, 
frug,  pret.  of  fragen,  139,  461. 
fru^,  early.  300,  1;  554, 1. 

f?Sfnr-'"''  [breakfast,  137,1;  431,1. 

funcen,  past  part,  of  finben,  453, 2. 

5unfe(n),  m.,  spark;  see  46,  4. 

5vurc^e,   /".,  t^;.,  + furrow,  430, 1. 

further,"  76,  2. 

gu^,  m.,  -eg,  '^e,  +  foot,  430, 1. 

gad)ftn,  /.,  pi.  -innen,  + vixen,  504. 

ffi^ren,  to  guide,  535,  1,  a. 

ptten,  colt,  +  foal,  503,  2. 

far  +  for,   76,  2,  b  ;    304,  3 ;    306,  9 ; 

516,  5. 
fiivba^,  onward,  76, 1. 
fftrdjten,  to  fear;  (furi^tete);  454,  3. 
fftvUc'6  ne^men,  to  put  up  with,  538,  7. 
gdvfl,  m.,  w.,  prince,  76,  2,  b;  439,  2. 


276      WORD-IKDEX   AKD    GERMAI^'-BKaLISH   VOCABULARY 


g,  pronunc.  of,  10;  375,  3,  4;  391,  2  ;  in 
foreign  words,  378,  4:  383,  1,  Rem.; 
after  n  in  N.  G.,  383, 1,  a;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  408,  3,  4;  gg,  493,  4;  de- 
scription of,  383,  2;  see  ge-. 

gan  —  gunnen  >  gonneiij,  471,  5. 

gan3,  wliole. 

gar,  adj.,  done;  atZz;.,  even,  very  ;  +mc{)t, 
not  at  all. 

©arberobe,  /.,  «^.,  +  wardrobe, 

gftren,  gor,  gegoven,  to  ferment,  VIII.,  133; 
(garft,  rarely  gievft,  often  weak  through- 
out). 

ge-,  g-,  516,  T ;  543  ;  in  the  past  part., 
107,  108  ;  453,  2  ;  5^8  ;  in  nouns  of 
neuter  gend.,  161,  3  ;  in  p.  p.  of  com- 
pound verbs,  546,  3. 

gebaven,  gebar,  geboren,  to  bring  forth, 
+  bear;  IV.,  1^7,398  ;  (pret.  subj.  ges 
tare,  bu  gebierft,  gebter). 

getcn,  gafi,  gegc6en,  +  give, V.,  128, 1;  (gieBfi, 
gieb);  466  ;  impersonal,  205  ;  336,  4 ; 
399, 

©eif,  m.,  w.,  coxcomb. 

®ebac^t(ev);  the  above  mentioned,  146, 1 ; 
<  gebenlen,  q.  v. 

©ebanfe(n),  m.,  +  thought,  see  46,  4  ; 
47,  2. 

gebenren,  gebac^tc,  gebad}t,  +  think  of,  men- 
tion; see  benten. 

gcbei:^en,  gebie^,  gebict)en,  thrive,  I.,  133,  2. 

©cbi^t,  n.,  -e,  poem. 

gebiegen,  adj.,  solid,  pure,  past  part,  of  ge- 
beilett,  according  to  Verner's  Law,  411; 
534,  4. 

©efalte(n),  m.,  pleasure  (in),  favor,  see  46, 
4;  47,  2. 

gegen  +  against,  304,  4 ;  see  entgegen,  ju, 
na^,  uni. 

gegenubev,  opposite,  303,  7 

geSen,  gtng,  gegangen,  +  go,  VII.,  130,  1; 
136,  1;  457,2;  474;  +inf.,  390,  2; 
I)ast  part.,  396;  (bu  ge^[t,  gel;c). 

©S  I"  ^^^  meaning,  etc.,  see  163,  3. 

©eift,  m.,  -cr, +ghost;  wit. 

gcijen,  to  be  stingy,  etym.,  539. 

©clb  unb  @ut,  lit.  money  and  proper ty= all 
one's  possessions. 

gclegen,  convenient,  534,  4. 

gelingen,  gclang,  gelungen,  to  be  successful 
(in),  IIL,  135,  1. 

gelten,  gait,  gegotten,  to  be  worth,  valid,  HI., 
131,  135,3;  impersonal,  305;  (golte  — 
gaite,  bu  giltft,  ev  gtit,  imper.  gelte  as  a 
rule). 

©emai^,  n.,  "  ev,  apartment. 

getna^,  according  to,  303  8. 

©cmiit,  n.,  -ev,  soul,  disposition. 

gen,  towards,  304,  4. 

©enera'l,  m.,  -e  or  -e,+general. 

genefen,  genag,  genc^en,  to  recover,  V.,  138, 
1;  (bu  gencfeft,  er  goneft,  gcnc^e). 

geme^en,  geno^,  genoffen,  to  enjoy,  II.,  134, 
1;  (bu  genicjjeft  or  geniejit). 

gerlng,  small,  compar.  of,  76, 1. 


gef($afttg,  busy. 

gcfdje^en,  gefc^at),  ge?(^e^en,  to  happen,  V., 

138,  i;  (e§  gefdjie^t). 
©cic^ledjt,  n.,  -er,  race,  generation. 
©ejdjmeibe,  n.,  -,  set  of  jewelry, 
ge^(^H5etge,  conj.,=sa.j  nothing  of,  333. 
©efetle,  m.,  w.,  journeyman,  fellow,  com- 
panion. 
©efeOfc^aft,  f.,w.,  company,  party. 
®cfi(^t,  w.jsee  57,  58. 
©efpenft,  n.,  -er,  spook,  ghost, 
geften,  past  part,  of  efjen,  138,  R. 
geftalt,  shaped,  past  part.  <  ftetten,  455, 3. 
gefunb  +  sound,  wholesome,  74,  5. 
©etreibe,  n.,  -,  grain,  etym.,  511. 
getroft,  confident,  419;  past  part.  <  troflen, 

455,  3. 
©ewatter,  m.,  -,  +  god- father, 
©ereanb,  w.,-e,  -er,  garment,  58. 
getuanbt,  active,  clever,  74,  5 ;  past  part,  of 

wenben,  455,  3. 
©emerbe,  n.,  -,  trade, 
©emimmel,  n.,  -,  swarming, 
geminnen,  gewann,  geraonnen,  win.  III.,  135, 

2;  (gciDonne  —  gcwdune). 
gh,  G.  correspondents  of,  415, 1. 
gewi^,  certain,  etym.,  413,  2  ;   past  part., 

453,  1. 
gie^en,  go|,  gegDfjen,+to  pour,  n.,  134, 1; 

(geu^t,  geu^  rare,  gte^eft  or  gie^t). 
©tft,  n.,  -e,  poison,  +  gift ;  etym.,  399 ; 

403,  1;  gender  of,  163,  3. 
©raS,  n.,  -ye-3,  -jcr,  +glass,  493,  3. 
gIau6en  +  to  believe. 
®taube(n),  m.,  + belief,  see  46,4. 
glei(^  +  like;  for  fDgIet(^= immediately;  +in- 

verted  order,  339. 
-glcicben,  in  comp.  with  prou.,  +  the  like  of, 

87. 
glei(^en,    glid),    gegltdjen,  to    be    like,   I,, 

133,  1. 
gleifen,  w.  v.,  deceive,  133, 1. 
glei^en,  gtijj,   geglifjen,  +  glitter,  I.,  133, 1; 

bu  glei^eft  or  gleiit,  er  glei^t). 
gleitcn,  glitt,  geglitten,  +  glide,  I.,  133,  1; 

(er  gleitet). 
glimmen,  glomm,  gegtommen,+ to  glimmer, 

vm.,  133. 

©nabe,  /,,  w.,  grace. 

©Dib,  n.,  no  pi,  gold. 

©Dtt,  m.,  -c§,  ^  er,  +God,  408,  3. 

gonnen,  not  to  grudge;  etym.,  471,  5. 

graten,  grub,  gcgvaben,  to  dig,  VI.,  139;  (bu 

gribft). 
greifen,  griff,  gegriffen,  to  seize,  I.,  133, 1. 
greinen,  gvien,  gegriencn,  +  grin  (generally 

weak,  rare),  I.,  133,  L 
©raf,  m.,  w.,  count, 
©riffel,  m.,  -,  style  (slate-pencil). 
grinfen,  +  giin<  greinen,  133, 1. 
groH great;  compar.  of,  73. 
©ro^mutter,  /.,  --, -(-grandmother, 
gra^en-fgreet;  (bugraBcft). 
gut  +  good ;  compar.  of,  76,  1 ;  compared 

with  n?L>M,  399,  2,  a;  439. 
gmben+golden,  534,  2. 


WORD-INDEX  AN-D   GERMANT-EKGLISH   VOCABULARY.      277 


^,  pronnnc.  of,  11 ;  description  of,  374; 
Eng.  correspondents  of,  410,3;  415,1; 
silence  of,  33;  363,  2;  491,  2;  loss  of, 
415,  3;  sign  of  length,  33,  363,  2,  3; 
i)  —  6),73;  490,3,6;  ^  —  g,  124, Rem.; 
416. 

J}abm  +  have,  infl.  of,  110;  contracted 
forme,  111,  1;  impersonal,  305;  in 
comp.  tenses,  865  ;  383,  1,  2  ;  +  inf., 
390,  1. 

-^aft,  adj. -suffix,  536,2. 

A^ageftol5,  m.,  w.,  bachelor;  pi.  also  -e. 

^aW,  before  cardinals,  336,  2;  after  ordi- 
nals, 339,  1. 

-:^al6en,  f or  .  . .  sake  (of),  comp.  with  pro- 
nouns, 87,  89;  prep.,  303,  4. 

balbev+half,  prep.,  303,  4. 

lalten,  ^ielt,  ge^atten,+hold,  Vn.,  130,1; 
(bu  I^altft,  er  ^ait). 

§anb,  /.  ^e,+hand,  53;  439, 1. 

-:^anben,  in  comp.,  439,  l. 

:^anbeln,  to  act,  trade. 

^anbgemetn  (roerben),  to  come  to  blows, 
319. 

^anbf(^u^,  m.,  -e,  glove. 

i^angcn,  t)ittg,  ge^angen,  +  hang  (intr.),  YU., 
130, 1;  (but^angft). 

affen+to hate,  414,1  Ex.;  bu  ^ajlejl or ^a^t. 
aft+hast,  see  l)a6en. 
a^,+hate,  414,  lEx. 

fat + has,  see  t)a6en. 

:^auen,  ^ieb,  ge^auen,  +  hew,  strike,  VII., 
131;  (bu^auft). 

taufe(n),  w.,+heap,  crowd,  troop,  46,  4. 
au§,  n.,  -fe§,  — fer,  +  house ;  —  unb  §Df, 
house  and  farm,  —  and  home. 
:^au^ + out  here  <$ie+au8,  41,  l. 
^fiupten,  D.  pi.,  see  59. 
§e6et,  m.,  -,  lever. 

^eben,  :^ob  (^u6),  geBoben,  VI.,  139;  Vin., 
133  ;  457,  1 :  467  ;  (^obe  —  ^at>e,  bu 

^t^,  n.  and  m.,  no  pL,  concealment;  in  83 
he  makes  no  secret  of  it .  .  . 

§etbe,  m.,  w.,  + heathen,  163,  3;  435,  3. 

^eimfuc^ung,/.,  w.,  visitation. 

i^eint+this  night,  443,  2. 

^eirat,  f.,  w.,  marriage,  511,  a. 

6eiyer  + hoarse. 

l^ei^en,  ^ie^,  ge^ei^en,  command,  be  called, 
-l-hight,  Vn.,  108,  1;  131,  458,  2  ;  in- 
trans.,  179,  1;  trans.  301;  +inf.,  390, 
2,  4  ;  +pa8t  part.,  396,  2  ;  (bu  l^etHtor 
^ei^t,  er  ^ei^t). 

-^ett  +  -head,  515,  1 ;  indicates  fem.  gen- 
der, 161,  2;  431,  2. 

:^eiter,  serene,  71. 

§elb,  m., «;.,  hero. 

^elfen,  ^alf,  ge^olfen,  +  help,  HI.,  135,3; 
past  part,  of,  108,  1;  464;  +inf.,  390, 
2 ;  (bu  ^itm,  ^itf). 

§erab,  7i.,  -eg,  -en,  shirt. 

^er-i- hither, + here,  443,  2. 

^evr,  m.,  w.,  lord,  master,  Mr.;  reduced  to 
cr,  330,  3  ;  short  e,  488,  3. 

^tvcUiti,  splendid. 


^ertoo'rt^un,  refl.,  to  distinguish  one's  self; 
see  t^un. 

tera,  w.,  +heart,  infl.  of,  63,  1 ;  435, 1. 
erjog,  m.,  -e,+duke,  416, 1. 
^erjogtum,  n.,  ~er,  + dukedom, 
befeen,  incite,  hunt,  535,  1,  b,  R.  2. 
beuer+this  year,  443,  2. 
^eute-i- to-day,  443,2. 
^ier  +  here,  after  pron.,  345,  3 ;  etym,, 

443,2.  .      >      y      . 

§immel,  m.,  -,  heaven, 
bin,  thither,  away,  443,  2. 
Winter  +  behind,  prep.^  306,  4 ;  in  comp. 

verbs,  549,2;  aofj.,  76,2. 
§irte,  m.,  w.,+ herdsman, 
his  —  its,  343,  2. 
^0(^  +  high,  73  ;  490,  3,  b.    Infl.  ^ol^er, 

l^o^e,  ^D^e3. 
§Dffart,/.,  no.  pi..,  pride,  538,  2,  b. 
^offen-i-hope. 

;ioM+ hollow,  compar.  74. 
bolb,  gracious,  compar.  74,  405. 
:$Dlcn,  fetch,  -t- hale,  haul. 
^DBfen,  m.,  - +hops. 
^Dfe,/..  w.,  trousers, + hose, 
l^oren -f  hear,  instead  of  ge:^iivt,  108,1;  113; 

+inf.,  390,  3. 
§utb,  /.,  no  pi..,  favor,  grace,  40.5 

t§unb,  m.,  -e,  dog,  +  hound. 
§unbert,  n.,  -c,+hundred,  336  ;  539,  2. 
afte,  f.,  w>.,-hhip,  430,  1  ;  513,  2. 
ftnbcfen;'  w.,  -,  little  dog. 


{,  pronunc.  of,  13  ;  description  of,  369,1, 

2 ;    <  ie.  488,  4 ;   <  0,  489,  2 ;   <  e, 

489,  5. 
fc^-f-I,  81. 
-i*,  509  ;  indicates  masc.  gend.,  161, 1 ; 

489,  5. 
-ic^t,  509,1;  535,3. 

ie,  pronunc.  of,  33,  3;  seei;  in  redupli- 
cating verbs,  CI.  VII.,  458, 2;  488, 3,  a. 
ie  -  CU,  134,406. 
-ie,  noun-suffix,  489,  4;  493,  3;  indicates 

fem.  gender,  161,  2. 
-ieren,  verbs  in,  108, 4;  493,  2;  538. 
-ig.  +  -y,  adj.-sufflx,  535,  1-3 ;  489,  5 ; 

for  -i(^,  609;  536,  3,  C. 
-igen,  verb-suf.,  539, 4. 
-igtett,  515,  2. 
-iglie^,  adj.-suf.,  535,  2. 
tbm,  i$n,  t:^nen,  see  er,  flc,  e8,  pers.  pron. 
i^r,  poss.  pron.,  her,  their,  with  cap.  your, 

85;  origin  of,  343,2. 
iBrer,  G.  of  pers.  and  poss.  pron.,  see  fie, 

i^r. 
3^rD,  your,  86  ;  441,  2. 
tn  +  in,  306,  5 ;  for  In  ben,  40. 
-in,  noun-suffix,  504  ;  fem.  gender,  161, 

2;  167;  430,3. 
inbem,  con?.,  while,  330, 1;  333;  because, 

337. 
-tng,  noun-suffix,  506. 
inner  +  inner,  76,  2. 
inner^alBf  within,  i^rep.^  303. 


278      WORD-I^DEX    AND   GERMAN-EN^GLISH   VOCABULARY. 


in  JDfevn,  in  wiefern,  +in  so  far  as,  33G. 

irbifd)  +  earthly. 

irgenb,  any,  with  pron.  and  adv.,  260. 

3n-tum,  m.^  -  cv,  +  error,  56. 

-ifd)  +-ish,adj.-sufflx,  311;  514;  525,4. 

its,  5J43,  2. 


% 

'\,  pronunc.  of,  13;  378, 4;  description  of, 

375,  4;  disappeared,  491,  2. 
jagen,  hunt,  chase;  strong  pret.,  VI.,  139. 
3a^r,  n.,  -e,  +year;  after  numerals,  175. 
3ager,  m,.,  -,  hunter, 
je  +ever ;  conj.  334  ;  before  cardinals  with 

distributive  force  =  "at  a  time";  je 

na^bem  =  "that  depends"  ;  +aye. 
jeb(cv),  every,  each',  infl.  of,  97;  316,1; 

445,  1 ;  in  comp.,  97  ;   pi.  of,  361,  3  ; 

+  either. 
{cbeS,  each,  168. 
jebweber,  every  one,  each,  97 ;    361,  3  ; 

445,  2. 
egltc^,  every, +each,  97,  445, 1. 
emanb,  some  one,  97;  360;  445, 1. 
en(er),  that,  +  yon.  90  ;  443, 1 ;  G.  sing. 

of,  316, 1;  use  of,  345,  346. 

3,  see  jagen. 
ung+ young. 

unge,  m.,  w.,  boy;  n.,w.,  +  young  of  ani- 
mals. 
3ungter,/.,w., maiden  ;  etym.^  516, 12,«. 
Sunfer,  young  nobleman,  i  younkor,  .'SI 6, 

12.  a. 
^uive'I,  w.,  -%,  -en,  +jewel. 
jfingft,  lately;  etym.,  555,  2. 


t,  pronunc.  of,  14,  383,  1  ;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  409,  3 ;  description  of, 
383,  1. 

l((i)\,  bald,+callow;  compar.  of,  74. 

.taiyer,  m.,  -,  emperor,  +  Cesar,  Czar. 

fait + cold,  etym.^  409,  3. 

lann,  see  lonnen. 

lanntc,  see  fennen. 

Sar-,  in  comp.,  433,  3. 

^afeenfonigin,  f.^pl.  -innen,  +  queen  of  cats. 

faum,  hardly;  word-order,  330,  2. 

t&fe +cheese,  46, 3 ;  etym.y  438, 5. 

fed,  bold,  +  quick,  403,  Ex. 

feifen,  fiff,  ^efiffen,  +  scold  (like  an  old 
woman),  1, 133, 1. 

fetn,  no,  none,  73  ;  95  ;  445,  2. 

-feit,  noun-suffix,  515,  2;  fern,  gend.,  161, 
2;  430,  2. 

fennen,  fanntc,  gefannt,  to  be  acquainted 
with,  119,  1 :  367, 1 ;  (fennte). 

^ette,  /.,  w.,  + chain,  43.5,  4. 

fle^en,  see  fftven ;  bu  fiefcft  or  fieyi. 

SJinb,  n.,  -e^,  -cr,  child,  60. 

tinblein,  n.,  -,  little  child. 

^trfc^e,  /.,  2^;.,  +  cherry. 

War  +  clear,  74. 


5lteincb,  w.,  -e,  also  -ien  as  if  a  foreign 

word  ;  jewel,  .511,  a. 
tUebcn,  tlob,  geflofcen,  split,  +  cleave,  II., 

134,  2. 

fUmmen,  flomm,  geftommen,  +  climb,  VIIT., 

133. 
fitngen,  ftang,  geftungen,  to  sound,  ring.  III.. 

135,  1. 

^nabe,  m.^w.,  boy, + knave,  413,  3. 
fnavren,  creak. 

fneifen,  tniff,  gctniffcn,  pinch,  I.,  133,  1. 
fommen,  fam,  getcmmen,  +  come,  IV.,  137  ; 

465;  489,  1 ;  umlaut  in  pres.,  137,  R.: 

+  past  part.,  396  ;  409,  3. 
lonnte,  see  tonnen. 
^opf,  wi.,  -e§,  -e,  head, 
foflen+cost;   constr.  with,  307,  1,  R. ; 

(fofteft,  foftet). 
^onig,  m.,  -e,+king. 
fennen,  fonnte,  gefDnnt,  +  can,  135,  3;  108. 

2:  367,  1. 
^raft,  /.,  -c,  strength,  +  craft ;  prep.,  303 

5,6. 
treBS,  m.,  -e,  +  crayfish,  513. 
freifc^en,  Vc'\.\6),  gefvifc^en,  scream,  I.,  133, 1. 
frei^en,  see  tretjc^en. 
fried)en,  trod),  gefro^en,  +  creep,  crawl,  II., 

133,  2;  (freu(^ft,  freud)  are  archaic), 
tu^, /.,  -e,  +  cow,kine. 
tunb  +  known,  +  (un)couth  ;   constr.  with 

319. 
funnt  for  fonnte,  q.  v.\  in  347. 
fiiren,  for,  geforen,  +  choose,  II.,  134,  2; 

133  ;  411  ;  416.  1 ;  463  ;  (bu  fUrft). 
^tiiljen,  ??.,  no />?.,  + kissing. 


I,  pronunc.  of,  15  ;  description  of,  381  ; 
385,  4. 

-I,  see  -cl. 

laben.  lub,  c",o(afccn,  +  load,  summon,  VI., 
139;  also  weak;  (bu  labft,  cr  liibt). 

la^m  +  lame,  74. 

Sanb,  n., +  land,  pi.  see  58. 

?anb6mann,  m.,  pi.  -leute,  fellow  country- 
man, 173. 

lang  +  long. 

fiangewei'le,/.,  ennui;  accent  433,1. 

laffen,  Ite^,  gelaffen,  +let,  VH.,  130, 1;  past 
part,  without  ge-,  108, 1;  constr.  after, 
199,  303, 1;  367,  7;  +  reflexive,  373  ; 
in  the  imper.,  387,  4;  +inf.,  390,2,3, 
h ;  366,  4 ;  (bu  IJiffeft  or  lafet,  er  la^t). 

ta^,  weary,  74  ;  76,  2  ;  439,  2  ;  +late. 

tau,  tepid, +  luke,+ lew,  74. 

laufen,  lief,  gclaufen,  run,  VII.,  131 ;  313, 
1;  458,  2;  (bu  Iftufft). 

taut  +  loud  ;  etym.,  396 ;  415  ;  prep., 
303,  6. 

lauter,  nothing  but,  100. 

ia(^eln,  smile. 

langft,  long  ago,  555,  3. 

leben  +  live. 

lefce'nbig  +  living;  accent  430, 1. 

legen  +  lay,  535, 1.  a. 

le^ren,  teach ;  instead  of  gele^rt,  108, 1 ; 


WORD-INDEX   AND  GERMAK-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY.      279 


constr.  after,  199  ;  in  passive,  5303,  2  ; 

+  inf.,  390,  2  ;   395. 
-lei,  533. 

Ceib,  m.,  -e8,  -er,  body, 
leiben,  Utt,  gelitten,  suffer,  I.,  133, 1;  411; 

416,  1;  (bu  leibeft). 
Seiben,  n.,  -,  suffering, 
letbev,  unfortunately,  335,  2. 
Ieil;eu,  lie(),  geUe^en,  +  lend,  I.,  133,  2, 


-lem,  noun-suffix,  46, 


500,  2;  neut. 


gend.,  161,  3  ;  493,  4. 

Seitftem  +  lode-star,  530, 4,  a. 

-ler,  noun-suffix,  500,  4 ;  indicates  masc. 
gender,  161, 1. 

lernen  +  learn  ;  instead  of  gelemt,  108, 1 ; 
for  le^ren,  199,  2;  +inf.,  390,  2  ;  395. 

tefen,  \<xi,  gelefen,  read,  V.,  138, 1 ;  395  ; 
(bu  Hefeft  or  Iteft,  er  lieft,  Ue§). 

lejerlic^,  legible^  536,  3,  c. 

let,  in  imperative,  387,  4. 

Ie|t-  +  last,  439, 2 ;  76,  2  ;  after  ordinals, 
533,  2. 

Ceumunb,  m.,  no  pi.,  repute  ;  etym..,  396  ; 
494,  3, 

-leute,  in  comp.,  173. 

4i(^  +  -like,  +  -ly,  311;  535,4;  536,  3  ; 
adverbial  suffix,  554,  2. 

CiAt,  w., -flight,  p,.  see  58. 

Ueben-t- love,  496. 

8te6eg6tief,  tw.,  -c,-f  love-letter,  518,  3. 

liegen,  lag,  gelegen,  -t-  to  lie,  V.,  138,  2; 
457,  1 ;  II.,  133  ;    -f-inf.,  390,  3. 

-lig,  536,  3,  c. 

-ting  -t-  -ling,  noun-suffix,  500,  3;  indi- 
cates masc.  gender,  161,  1. 

-lingen,  in  names  of  places,  500,  3,  a. 

-lingg,  553. 

linf-,  left  (hand),  only  used  attributively 
like  adjectives  in  311. 

loben,  praise,  496. 

Sorter,  m.,  -S,  -(e)n,-t- laurel. 

lore-f-Se^re,  395. 

8o§,  w.,  -e^,  -e, -(-lot. 

Io8  + loose,  -f  -less  in  adj.,  536,  B. 

lofc^en,  trans,  and  weak^  to  extinguish,  un- 
load ;  intrans.,  to  be  extinguishe-J,  see 
erlofc^en. 

Subwlg  +  Louis  -f  Chlodwic,  396. 

gutter -t- Luther,  396. 

8uft, /.,  — c,  pleasure, -I- lusts. 

Wgen,  log,  gelogen,  -i-lie,  II.,  134, 2 ;   133. 

Sugen  [ttafen,  to  give  the  lie,  199,  2. 


m,  pronunc.  of,  16  ;  description  of,  388  ; 

Eng.  correspondents  of,  490,  4,  5. 
-tn,  see  em. 
tnac^en-fmake,-t-inf.,  390,  2-  366,4;  ba8 

(Ace.)  mac^t  =  the  reason  is  .  .  . 
mag,  see  mogen. 

30?agb,/.,  -!^e,-t- maid-servant,  513,  3. 
magcr -(- meager,  71 ;  no  umlaut  in  compar., 

74. 
S[Ragt'fier,  m.,  -,  -f  master  (of  arts), 
marten -H  grind,  originally  of  VI.,  see  400  ; 

past  part.  gemat)len  still  common. 


iUtuib+maid,  513,3;  (poetic  form). 

SDiajeftat,  /.,  zf;.,-t- majesty. 

mat,  once,  probably  =  einmat,  41,  1;   in 

comp.,  531,  2. 
man,  one,  98. 
mdudj-fmanya,  100  ;  363  ;  535, 1 ;  -t-ein, 

144. 
SO?ann,  m.,-j-man  ;  pi.,  58,  59;  in  comp., 

173. 
SD?arfd^,  m.,  -e,  -f-  march  ;  /.,  w.,  -f  marsh, 

163,  4. 
mavf(^ieren  +  march,  108,  4. 
SOJaft,  m.,  -e§,  -en,  -f  mast ;  /.,  w.,  fattening, 

stall-feeding. 
ma^cn,  because,  337,  1. 
mott,  faint, -f- mate  in  check-mate;  compar., 

74. 
aWautouvf,  m.,  -^e,  +  mole,  etym.,  400 ; 

494,  3. 
9JfaU'3Iein,  w.,  -,  little -f- mouse. 
SDJeer,  n.,  -e,  ocean, -i- mere, 
ine^r  +  more,  compar.  of,  76,  1 ;   100 ; 

439  ;  used  in  comparative,  334. 
mefirer-,  several,  76,  1 ;  100. 
mel)rft-, -f-most,  100. 
meiben,  micb,  gemieben,  avoid,  L,  133,  2 ; 

(meibeft). 
mein,  G.  of  tc^,  see  meincr  ;  mein-,  possess. 

pron.,  85 ;  in  mein  Stag,  2e6tag,  343, 1. 
meiner,  comparat.,  +  more  mine,  335,  2  ; 

G.  of  idj,  86. 
meinig-,  poss.  prow., -f  mine,  85. 
metft-fmost,  compar.  of,  76, 1;  100. 
9]?ei^el,m.,-,  chisel, 
meiben,  announce,  (melbete). 
melten,  molf,  gemotten,+milk,  VIII.,  133  ; 

(bu  mettft  and  milfft,  melfe  and  mtif). 
90?elobei,  /.,  w.,  -t- melody,  493,  2. 
aWenfc^,  m.,  w.,  +  ran.n ;  w.,  see  59,  514. 
meffen,  ma|,  gemeften,-)- measure,  V.,  138, 

Ij  (bu  miffe[t  or  mi^t,  er  mt^t). 
'er,  w.,  -,  knife  ;  m.,  -,  measures  ;  see 

163,  3. 

SWette,  /.,  t<;.,  -(-matins,  435,  4. 

mi^-fme,  Ace.  of  \6),  81. 

mtnber,  less,  comparison  of,  76, 1  ;  439  ; 

used  in  compar.,  334. 
mines,  in  comp.,  87. 
miv-fme,  to  me,  D.  of  ic^,  81. 
mi^  -(-  mis-,  453, 1 ;  516,  8;  544. 
9J?iffc-,  see  Smx^-. 
mit,  with,  303,  9. 

aKtttaggftunbe,  /.,  w.,  hour  of  noon, 
mittel-  -f  middle,  76,  2,  b. 
mittelfl,  see  mittel-,  x>rep.,  303,  7. 
a«ttterna(^t,  /.,  ^e,-(- midnight,  519,  2. 
aKitt»D(i^,    m.,    also  /.,   w.,  Wednesday, 

164,  d. 

mm  <  mb,  -fEng.  mb,  490,  4. 

aKo^r,  m.,  w.,-t-Moor. 

aJZorb,  m.,  -t%,  pi.  see  51. 

morfcfj,  rotten,  74. 

mouse  —  mice,  439, 1. 

mogen,  moc^te,  gemo(^t-f  may,  135,  4;  108, 

2  ;  367,  3 ;  413,  2 ;  (ev  mag,  pret.  subj. 

moc^te).  , 

9D?unb,  m.,  -e8,  -e,  older  -e,-f-mouth. 
aKuStel,  m.,  -tt,  also/.,  w.,-f  muscle. 


3Reife 


280    woRD-iKDEX  AiTD  germa:n"-ekglish  vocabulary. 


-mut,  in  comp,,  164,  a ;  +mood. 
abutter,  /.,-,+  mother  ;  see  Verner's  Law, 

411. 
mMe,  /.,  w.,  +  midge,  413,  4. 
miibe,  tired, 
muffen,    mu^te,    gemup,  +  must,   135.  6 ; 

108,  2;  307,  3;  471,3;  (bu  mu^t,  er 

mu^,  mu^te). 

n,  pronunc.  of,  17;  nature  of,  386,  387, 

final  n  in  foreign  words,  386, 1,  Rem. ; 

short  before  sonant  stops,  385,  4  ;  n  = 

g.,  i.  e.,  "•  guttural "  nasal,  386,  and  see 

nf,  ng ;   before  labial,   388,  1 ;   lost  in 

Eng.,  417,  1 ;  entered  the  N.  of  nouns 

of  the  n-decl.,  435,2 ;  loss  of,  435, 3, 4  ; 

503  ;  506,  1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of, 

490,5.    See -en. 
tiac^,  after,  303,  10 ;  see  ju  and  gegen. 
S«a^6ar,  m.,  -§,  -n,  +  neighbor.  63,  1. 
nac^bem,  conj..  after,  330,  2 ;  according  as, 

334. 
^ait)t,f.,  ^-c+night,  53,  2;  439,  1. 
na:^e+ near,  +  nigh,  73. 
9?arr,  m.,  w».,+fool. 
9?atu'v,  /.,  '^^;.,+ nature, 
nac^ft  +  next,  73  ;  303,  11. 
-nb,  part.-sufflx,  505. 
'nefor  etne+a,  41, 1. 
neben,  by  the  side  of,  306,  6  ;  557. 
neBft,  besides,   tosrether  with,    303,  12; 

555,  2. 
needs,  553,  1. 
nc^men,  na^m,  genommen,  take,  IV.,  137  ; 

SBunbev  — ,  199, 1,  2 ;  (bu  nimmft,  uimm). 
-ne(n),  verb-suf.,  537,  1;  118, 1,  2. 
'nen  for  einen  +  ,  41, 1 
nennen,  119,  1 ;  455  ;  constr.  with,  301 ; 

390,2;  396,2;  303,4. 
-ner,   noun-suf.,    503,   1;    masc.   gend., 

161,  1. 
ticu+new. 

ng,  pronunc.  of,  17,  383, 1,  a ;  386,  1. 
iiid)t,  nid)t§,  +  not, + naught,  99  ;  199, 1, 2 ; 

309,  1 ;   position  of,  354  ;  in  compar. 

clauses,  333,  2 ;  490,  3 ;  after  verbs  of 

hindering,  309,  2. 
9'Ji(^te,  /.,  w.,  +niece. 
ni(J)tg  wentger  al§,  anything  but . . .,  333, 

2,  a. 
ntb  + beneath,  551,  3. 
nleber-,  ac{;.,+ nether,  76,  2. 
ntemal6,  never. 

niemanb,  no  one,  97,  445, 1. 
-nl§  +  -ness,  50 ;   indicates   neuter   and 
fem.  nouns,  161,  2,  3  ;  438,  6 ;   origin 

of,  503. 
nl,  pronunc.  of,  17;  386, 1. 
no6eI  + noble,  74, 
noc^,  still ;  =  nor  with  correlative  weber  ; 

nocl)  nid^t,  not  yet,  354. 
5)Zorben,  m.,+ North, 
gjoten,  old  D.  pi.,  439, 1. 
nun  +  now;  —because,  337,1. 
nur,  only;  +ba^,  336;  336,1. 


o. 

0,  pronunc.  of,  18;   description  of,  370, 

1,2;  in  ablauts,  VI.,  459,  4  ;  <  u,  405, 

489,  4  ;  <  a,  489,  3. 
of>,  prep.,  +  above,  303,  8;  con?.,  whether, 

335,  2  ;  although,  339. 
oBcr-  in  comp.,  chief,  +  upper ;   accent. 

433,  7.  FF     ,  , 

oBcr-,  ac?;.+ upper,  76,2. 

oBgleic^,  obfc^on,  obwo^I,  although,  339. 

Dbtge§  +  the  above,  146,  1. 

Dc^g,  m.,  w.,+ox,  63,  2. 

Dbem,  m.,  no  pi.,  breath,  see  Sltem. 

oc  as  sign  of  umlaut,  363,  2. 

D^nmad^t,  fainting,  489,  3;  516, 10. 

D^ne,  without,  391,  1,  R.;  304,  5;  in 
comp.,  489, 3 ;  +516, 10 ;  +ba^  =  with- 
out +  part,  clause,  333. 

D^^nebem,  without  that,  304,  5. 

D^r,  m.,  -e§,  -en,  +  ear. 

on  +  an,  306,  2. 

once  +  einft,  555,  2,  a. 

-or,  noun-end.,  63,  2. 

SDrt,  m.,pl.  see  57,  58. 

Dften,  m.,  -3,  tio  pl;,+east. 

ou,  Eng.  —  Q.  au,  488, 5. 

o-umlaut,  see  o. 

D,  pronunc.  of,  31  ;  description  of,  370, 
3,  4  ;  0  —  e   489,  1 ;  <  0,  489,  4. 


p,  pronunc.  of,  19 ;   description  of,  385, 

1;    Eng.    correspondents    of,  413,    3; 

414,  2,  a;  493,3. 
gJda'ft,  m.,  pi.  ^palafte,  1 63,  1 ;  493,  1 ; 

494. 
^antojfel,  m.,  -3,  -n,  slipper. 
pf,  pronunc.  of,  19  ;   description  of,  389, 

1 ;    Eng.    correspondents   of,    409.   2 ; 

414,  2. 
^fa^S'  /•,  'UJ'i  castle,  +  Palatinate. 
^5fau,  m.,  IV.,  +  peacock,  414,  2. 
pfeifen,  pftff,  gepfiffcn,  whistle,  I.,  133, 1. 
$fevb,  n.,  -c§,  -e,  horse,  +  palfrey. 
ppcgcn,    pflog,    gepflogen,  carry  on,  VIII., 

133  ;   469  ;   (bu  pflegft,  pflege)  ;  always 

weak  =  to  cherish. 
^funb,  w.,-e§,  -e,+pound;  after  numerals, 

175. 
pB,  pronunc.  of,  19. 
platt,  flat,  74. 

plump,  awkward,  +  plump.  74. 
prctfen,  priced,  gepviefen,  + praise,  I.,  133,  2  ; 

(bu  prcifcft,  er  preift). 
^rin,^,  m.,  z^.,  +  prince  (of  a  royal  family), 
profeicren,  try,  108,  4. 
pufeen,    dress    up,    burnish,    (bu   pu^eft), 

118,4. 


q,  pronunc,  of,  30 ;  409,  3 ;  as  symbol, 

see  n  and  386, 
quetten,  quott,  gequotten,  to  gush  forth,  well 


WOED-IJSTDEX   AKD   GERMAlST-EIirGLISH  VOCABULABY.      281 


up,  (quiafl,  quittt,  quia  ;  also  weak  queU 
left,  quelle). 
qmman,  see  fomnien. 


91. 

r,  pronunc.  of,  31;  391,3;  description  of, 
374,8;  377;  <  s,  411,416. 

9ta6e,  crow,  +  raven,  413,  3;  435,  3;  503. 

atab,  w., -eg,  '-er,  wheel,  56. 

OJanb,  m.,  -e^,  — cr,  edge,  brim. 

vaf(^,  quick,  +  rash,  74. 

rai'en,  rage,  118,  4;  (bu,  er  raft). 

9iat,  m., -e§,  ^.  see  173. 

raten,  rict,  geraten,  advise,  vn.,  130, 1;  (bu 
r&tft,  er  rftt). 

DJatfd^Iag,  ratfc6tagcn,  advice,  to  advise, 
137,  1. 

xayxif-,  rau^,  + rough,  490,  3,  h. 

ra^en,  rftc^te,  gerac^t  or  gero(^en,  +  wreak 
vengeance,  VIII.,  133;  generally  weak; 
(bu  id(^ft). 

9JatfeI,w.,-,+ riddle. 

re(i^t,+ right. 

9fec^t,  n.,  -c,  +  right,  pi.  jurisprudence ; 
331  4  a. 

ve^nen^  +  reckon,  118,2;  537,1;  (rec^s 
nete). 

rcben,  to  speak  (rebete),  118  ;  537,  1. 

regnen  +  rain,  118,2;  537,1;  (regnete). 

reiben,  rieb,  gerieben,  rub,+rive,  I.,  133,2. 

ret^  +  rich. 

atei^,  n.,  -e,  empire. 

-reid)  +  -rich,  4  ric,  515,  3,  a. 

9fei'(3^§frei^eit,  /.,  w.,  + freedom  of  the  em- 
pire, immediate  dependence  upon  the 
empire. 

9Jeic^tum,  m.,  -ev,  wealth. 

rei^en,  rt^,  geriffeu,  tear,  I.,  133,  1 ;  (bu 
rei^eft  or  reipt,  +  write). 

retfen,  travel,  118  ;  (bu  retjeft  or  reift). 

retten,  rltt,  geritten,  +  ride,  I.,  133, 1;  +fpa= 
jieren,  ride  for  pleasure,  390  ;  (bu  reiteft, 
er  reitet). 

rennen,  rannte,  gerannt,  rush,  +  run,  119, 1. 

retten,  save  (rettete). 

-rid),  +  -ric,  515,  3. 

rteii^en,  roc^,  gero^en,  smell,  II.,  134, 1. 

ringen,  rang,  gerungen,  wrestle,  +  wring,  HI., 
135, 1 ;  ringen,  umvingcn,  etc.,  are  of  dif- 
ferent origin  and  weak,  though  umruus 
gen,  surrounded,  is  not  uncommon. 

rinnen,  rann,  gcronnen,  drip,  III,  135,  2; 
457,2 ;  ronn,  ronne  also  occur. 

Diitter,  m.,  -,  knight. 

Diotf,  m.,  -e,  coat. 

roHraw,  74;  415,3. 

ato^r,  w.,  -e,  reed,  55. 

rot  +  red. 

9i6^re,  /.,  w.,  pipe. 

aioglein,  w.,  -,  little  rose. 

vufen,  riet,  gerufcn,  call,  Vn.,  131;  constr. 
after,  196  ;  (bu  rufft,  in  classics  some- 
times rufte). 

runb+ round. 

ataden,  m.,  -,  +  ridge,  413, 4. 


\,  g,  pronunc.  of,  33-34:  391,  4;  descrip- 
tion of,  378,  1,  2,  3  ;  in  G.  sg.  of  m.and 
n.  nouns,  43  ;  of/,  nouns,  66,  518,  3; 
in  G.  8.  of  Eng,  adverbs  (needs),  553, 1 ; 
in  the  pi.,  60  ;  67  ;  in  composition  with 
poss.  pron.,  87  ;  in  compound  nouns, 
518,2,3. 

\\  <  ft,  413,  2  ;  f  in  Verner's  Law,  411, 
416  ;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  414, 1 ; 
417,5;  490,2. 

-g,  noun-suffix,  513  ;  in  adverbs,  553. 

'g  for  ha^,  41  ;  for  eg,  q.  v. 

'"■■'Te,  m.,  w.,  + Saxon 


fai^t,  gently,  +  softly,  417, 1 ;  mostly  ad- 
verb. 

©ad,  m.,  -e,  +  sack. 

fagen  +  say. 

-fal,  noun-suffix,  50,  51  ;  500,  1 ;  nouns 
of  doubtful  gender,  161,2,3. 

-fam  +  -some,  536,  4. 

famt,  with,  303, 13. 

©ame(n),  m.,  +  seed ;  infl.,  46,  4. 

fanft  +  soft,  gentle,  74  ;  417, 1. 

fatt  + satisfied  (+sad),  74. 

©a^,  m.,  -eg,  -e,  sentence. 

faufen,  foff,  gefoffen,  drink  (of  animals),  II., 
134,1;  463;  (bu  fciufft, -f-sup  and  +  sip). 

faugen,  fog,  gefDgen,  +  suck,  II.,  134,  2;  (Du 
faugft,  not  fftugjt  <  faugen). 

©aug  unb  25raug  (uninflec),  revel  and  riot. 

©abel,  m.,  -,  + sabre. 

©anger,  m.,  -,  + singer. 

©aule,  /.,  w.,  column,  430, 1. 

f(^,  pronunc.  of,  33;  description  of,  378, 
3;  389,4;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  413, 
1;  490,  1;  origin  of,  490,  1 ;  514. 

-fc^,  514  ;  see  -if^. 

©c^abe(n),  m.,  harm,  damage,  46, 4 ;  48,  l. 

fc^affen,  fdjuf,  gefd}affen,  to  create,  +  shape, 
Vl.,  139 ;  (bu  f^offft,  weak  =  work, 
procure). 

-f^aft  +  -ship,  515,  4;  fern,  gender,  161, 
2 ;  430,  2. 

f(i6alten,  fi^ott,  gefc^offen,  to  sound,  generally 
weak,  133;  (bu  f^attft). 

©c^ar,  /.,  w.,  troop,  host. 

f^auen,  to  look. 

-fc^e,  suffix  of  surnames,  514,  a. 

fiibciben,  f*ieb,  gefc^teben,  to  separate,  de- 
part, I.,  133,2;  VII.,  131 ;  (bu  fd^eibeft, 
er  f(i^eibet). 

f(^einen,  fc^ien,  gef^ienen,  +  shine,  seem,  I., 

133,  2. 

f*eipcn,  f*i^,  gef($iffen,  caeare,  I.,  133, 1. 
fcbeuen,  fcnott,  gef(^otten,  to  ring  (the  bell), 

Vni.,    133 ;   (bu  WW,   f^itt  are  very 

rare,  also  weak), 
fcbelten,  f(!^att,  gefc^otten,  -t- scold,  HI.,  135, 3; 

491, 2  ;  (bu  f^tttft,  cr  fc^ilt,  fd^ilt  or  fc^eUe, 

fc^olte). 
-fd^en,  suf.  in  verbs,  539,  2. 
fd^eren,  fc^or,  gefc^oren, -t- shear,  VUL,  133  ; 

(bu  fc^tcrft,  fester,  also  weak, 
fcbeuen,  avoid  ;  refl.,  to  fear, 
f^teben,  fiS^ob,  gef(^oben,  push,  +  shove,  II.,. 

134,  2. 


282      WORD-I^DEX   AKD   GERMAN-EKGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


fc^ier,  adj.,  brilliant,  pure ;   adv.,  almost, 

(quick,  comp.  bold  +  balb). 
f^iepen,  f^o^,  gefdjofjeu,  +  shoot,  II.,  134, 

1 ;  (bu  f(^iejjeft  or  f^ie^t). 
S^Ub,  n.  and  m.,  + shield,  see  58;  163,4. 
f^inben,  fdbunb  (I'l^anb),  gef^unben,  to  skin, 

III.,  135,1;  (bu  t^inbeft). 
fdjlafcn,  \6)\\t\,  gef(^Iafen,+ sleep,  VII.,  130, 

1 ;  pres.  part.,  394,  1 ;  (bu  jc^Iiflt). 
fdlaff,  slack,  74. 
fc^Iagen,  Wug,  gefi^tagen,  strike,  +  slay ,VI., 

139;  reaj5r.,= to  fight;  (bu  fi^lagft). 
fc^Ianf,  slender,  74. 

ic&let^en,f(^li(^,gej(^U(^en,to8neak,I.,133,l. 
fc^Icifen,   fc^Uff,  gef(^liffen,   to   sharpen  by 

grinding,  I.,  133,  1 ;  weak  =  to  raze. 
fd^Iei^en,  \&^\\%  gefc^Iiffen,  wear  off,  +  slit, 

I.,  133, 1 ;  (bu  fc^Iei^eft  or  fd)Iei^t). 
fdjtiefen,  fc^Icff,  gefcf)lDffcn,  to  slip,  II.,  134, 

2  ;  (bu  jcbleufft,  i*Ieuf  very  rare). 
f(^Ue|en,  fc^Io^,  gefc^toffen,  close,  conclude, 

II.,  134, 2 ;  (bu  f^tie^eft  or  fct;Ite^t,  fc^Ieu^t 

etc.,  rare). 
fdjUnben,  see  j(i^Iingen. 
f(i^Hngen,   ^(i^Iang,    gefc^Iungen,    to    twine, 

+  sling,  devour,  ill.,  135,  1. 
©(i^lud,  m.,  -c,  swallow ;  pi.,  51. 
f(^Iilpfcn  +  slip  <  jAUefeu  according  to  5:J5, 

1,  R.  2. 
©c^ma^,  /.,  710  2)1-,  disgrace,  490,  3,  b. 
fdjmac^ten,  to  pine  (fd)mad)tete). 
fc^meid^eln,  flatter,  536,  2,  Ex. 
|d)utci^en,  td^mtil,  ge?d)mt|fcu,  throw,  +  smite, 

I.,  133, 1 ;  (cu  fd)meiic[t  or  fd^mei^t). 
I'djineljen,  fc^molj,  gej(^moIjen,+melt,  VIII., 

133;  (bu  fc^mitjft  or  f^miljt,  eu  fi^miljt, 

trans,  is  weak), 
©(i^merj,  wi.,  -eg,  -en,  pain,  +  smart,  63. 
fii^nauben,   S&ixi\>h,   gej^noben,    snort,    puff, 

+  snuff,    II.,    134,  2,  also  weak;   (bu 

fc^naubft). 
©^neeiDtttc^cn,  +  Snow-white  (witt  is  L.  G. 

for  n)ei§). 
f(!^neiben,  fc^nttt,  ge?(^nitten,  +  cut,  I.,  133,1; 

416,  463  ;  (bu  y^netbeft). 
f^niefcen,  see  f(^nauben. 
Mni^en,  carve,  535, 1,  R.  2. 
fcpon,  already,   339 ;   position  of,  354  ; 

form  of,  554. 
fc^on,  beautiful,  533. 
fii^rauben,   ft^rob,  ge^^roben,  +  screw,    II., 

134,  2;  (bu  yc^raubft) ;  also  weak, 
fc^reden,  f^raf,  gef(^roien,  to  be  frightened, 

see  erf(^rerfen. 
©(^re(f(en),  m.,  fright ;  infl.,  46,  4. 
fc^retben,  fd^rteb,  ge^jvieben,  write,  I.,  133, 2. 
f(i^reien,  Wrie,  gef*rieen,  cry,  +  scream,  1., 

133,  2. 
f(i^reiten,  ^(i^ritt,  gefci^titten,  to  stride,  walk, 

I.,  133, 1 ;  (bu  y^reiteft,  er  fc^reitet). 
©(!^ritt,  m.,   -e§,   -c,    stride,    step ;    after 

numerals,  175. 
fftroff,  rugged,  uncouth,  74. 
fc^roetgen,  f(^n)*cg,  gef^tctegen,  to  be  silent, 

I.,  133,2 
©(i^irein,  n.,  -c,  pig,  +  sow,  +  swine,  503,2. 
f^njeUen,  fc^icoU,  gef^woUen,  +  swell,  VIII., 

133  ;  (bu  \^vo\i%  fc^ujiO). 


jc^reinben,  f^wanb,  gefc^wunben,  disappear, 

III.,  135,  1;   {l\x  f^minbeft,  ^c^wanbe  — 

fd^iciinbe). 
^(^wingen,    fdjwang,    ge^^wungen,  +  swing, 

III.,  135,  1 ;  (j^tcange  and  fc^iriinge). 
f(^tt)immen,  jc^icamm,  gefc^WDmnien,  +  swim, 

III.,    135,    2  ;    464  ;     (i^woniine   and 

fc^rcamtne). 
fc^moren,   S^^iwrn  and   fdjtcor,  geicbujoren,  + 

swear,  VI.,  139  ;   Vin.,  133  ;   467,  1  ; 

(bu  fi^ttjorft). 
©e.  <  ©eine,  His,  311,  2. 
©ce,  m.,  -§,  -en,  lake  ;  /.,  w.,  +  eea,  63. 
fel)en,  fat),  geje^en,  +  see,V.,  138,1 ;  instead 

of  gefet)cn,  108, 1 ;  +inf.,  390,  3;  410, 

3;  411,  Ex.;  (bu  fieMt,  fie^). 
fein,  G.  s.  of  er,  e§ ;  see  feiner. 
fein,  his,  its,  85  ;  not  referring  to  subject, 

343,  1 ;    343,  2;   referring  to  indefinite 

subj.,  98 ;    seemingly  for  ibf  in  „fetncr 

3eit,"  343,  2. 
fein,  to  be,  110  ;  473,  i ;  in  comp.  tenses, 

366,  383,1-3;  in  passive,  373  ;  +inf., 

390,  3,  a  ;   +past  part,  396,  2  ;  +pres. 

part.,  374,  6. 
feiner,  G.  s.  of  er,  e§,  of  him,  of  it,  81. 
feit-i- since,  prep.,  303,  14;  +  since,  conj., 

330,  2. 
feitbem,  see  feit. 

feitenS,  on  the  part  of,  prep.,  303. 
-fettS,  in  comp.  with  poss.  pron.,  87,  553. 
-fel,  noun-suf.,  46,  1 ;    500,  1  ;    mostly 

neut.  gend.,  16,  13. 
felb-,  fclbcr,  +  self ,  91,  2;  before  numerals, 

339,  1  ;    530  ;   strengthens  refl.  i)ron., 

337,2;  use  of,  349. 
felbanber,  two  of  them,  of  us  (according  to 

the  person  of  the  verb),  339,  1. 
felbig-,  same,  348,  2. 
felbft,  see  felb- 
-feltg,  adj.-suf.,  538,  2,  a. 
-fen  +  -se,  verb-suf ,  539, 1. 
fenben,  fanbte,  gefanbt,  +  send,  119, 1 ;  455, 

1;  pret.  subj.,  fenbete. 
fenfen,  fenfte,  gefenft,  trans.,  +  sink,  535, 

1,  a. 
©effel,  m.,  -,  (easy,  large)  chair, 
©eu^e,  /.,  w.,  epidemic  disease,  396. 
sh  — fdj,  490,  1,flJ. 
shall  +  follcn,  366,  5  ;  in  fat.,  366, 6  ;  3  79, 

3;  383  4. 
fic^,  A.  and  D.,  sing,  and  pi.  of  refl.  pron., 

him-  and  herself,  themselves,   83 ;   re- 
ciprocal pron.,  84,  each,  one  another  ; 

supplants  pers.  pron.,  337,1;  343,3, 

R.J  position  of,  353,  e. 
fie,  N.  and  A.,  fem.  smg.,  and  pi.  of  all  gen- 
ders, +  she,  her,  they,  them,  81. 
©ie,  you  in  address,  330,  2;  333. 
ficd),  infirm,  +  sickly,  396. 
fieben,  fott,  gefotten,  boil, -»- seethe,  11.,  134, 

1 ;    416,    1  ;    463 ;  (bu   ficbeft) ;   figur. 

weak. 
©in-,  in  comp.,  494,  3. 
fingen,  fang,  gcfungen,  +  sing.  III.,  13.'>,  1. 
finfen,  fant,  gefunfcn, -f-sink,  III.,  135,  1. 
©inn  unb  asciftanb  --  all  reason,  lit.  sense 

and  reason. 


WORD-IKDEX  AKD  GERMAi^^-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY.      283 


finnen,  fann,  ge^onnen,  meditate,  in.,  135, 

2 ;  (finne  and  jonne). 
fint+ since,  prep.,  303,  14. 
fintemal,  because,  337,  1. 
fifeeu,  \0i%  geieften,  +sit,  V.,  138,  2 ;  457, 1; 

[bu  fifeeft,  ev  ftfet,  fife(e)].  ,  ,  ,     , 

fo+so;  in  main  clauses  preceded  by  de- 
pend. Claus.,    339;    333;   330,  3,    a; 

348,  2 ;   in  consecutive  clauses,  335 ; 

in  compar.  clauses,  333,  3;  in  conces- 
sive cl.,  339;  relativeadv.,  357;  =reenn, 

340;  +ein,  350,2. 
©obn,  m.,-e, +son,  405. 
fotc^  +  such,  91,  3 ;  443, 1 ;  force  of,  350; 

-i-ein,  91,3;  144';  157  ;  333,3. 
fofern,  conj.,+\n  so  far  as,  340. 
©olba't,  m.,  w.,  + soldier, 
gotten,  foUte,  gefoat,  +  shall,  ought,  135,  5 ; 

108,  2;   471,  2,  4;   force  of,  367,  5; 

379,3;  383,2,5. 
fonber,  without,  304,  6 ;  489,  4. 
fonbern,  but,  330,  2,  R.;  word-order  after, 

343,  c. 
fonfi,  at  other  times,  330  ;  551,  3. 
fp,  pronunc.  of,    34;    378,  3;    389,  4; 

391,  1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  413,1. 
©po^,  m.,  -c§,  -e,  joke,  fun. 
^pa^en,  to  joke,  118,  2;  (fpa^eft,  fpa^te). 
fpat,  adv.,  late,  300, 1 ;  554. 1. 
©paten,  m.,  -,  +  spade. 
©pa^,  m.,  w.,  also  -e§,  -e,  +  sparrow, 
fpasieren,  walk  about,  with  verbs  of  motion, 

390,  2. 
fp&^cn  +  spy,  494, 1. 
fpit,  late,  see  also  fpat. 
jpcien,  fpie,  gefpieen,  -i-  spit,  +  spew,  I., 

133,  2. 
©petfe,  /.,  w..,  food. 
fpinnen,  fpann,  gefponnen,  +  spin,  III.,  135, 

2 ;  (fpaiine  and  fpiinne). 
©pion,  m.,  -e,  +  spy,  494,  1. 
fplei^en,  ipUp,  gefptiffen,  +  split,  1 ,  133, 1  ; 

(bu  fplei^eft  or  iplei^t,  er  fplci^t). 
©porn,  m.,  +  8pur,  for  infl.  see  63,  1. 
fpre(i^en,   fpra^,    gefprod^en,  +  speak,   IV., 

137  ;  (bu  fpri(^[t,  fpri^ ;  with  A.,  to  see, 

in  §  66. 
fprte^en,  fpro^,  gefprDffcn,  + sprout,  II.,  134, 

1 ;  (bu  fprie^efl  or  tptte^t,  cr  fprie^t ;  old, 

fpreu^t,  fpreu^). 
fprtngen,  fprang,  gefprungen,  +  spring,  run, 

m.,  135, 1 ;  (fprange). 
©prop,  m.,  -ffe§,  -ffe,  + sprout,  scion, 
ft,  pronunc.  of,  34  ;  378,  3  ;  389,4;  391, 

1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  413. 
-ft,  super!,  suffix,  73;  438, 1;  in  ordinals, 

80  ;  530  ;  in  nouns,  513,  3. 
©taat,  m.,  -e§,  -en,  +  state,  government. 
©ta^el,  m.,  -,  sting. 

©tabt,  /.,  -,  city,  430, 1,  a ;  490, 1,  b. 
©tamm,  w.,  -,  +  stem. 
ftarr,  stiff,  +  staring,  74. 
ftatt  +  instead  of,  303,  1 ;  490,  1,  b. 
©tatt,  /.,  no  pi.,  place,  +  stead,  see  ©tabt. 
©tatte,  /.,  w.,  spot,  see  above. 
fte(*en,  ftac^,  gefto(*en,  sting,  puncture,  + 
stick,  IV.,  137;   457,2;   465,1;  (bu 


fteden  +  to  stick  (not  ftaf,  but  weak). 
fte^en,  ftanb  (ftunb),  geftanben,+ stand,  139; 

136,  2;  457,2;  475  ;  (bu  ftc^ft,  fte^e,  ic^ 

ftilnbe  or  ftanbe). 
fleMen,  fta^I,   gefto^lcn,  +  steal,  IV.,  137; 

398 ;  465 ;  (bu  ftte^tf  ftiel;l  or  fte^lc, 

ftij^le  or  fta^le). 
ftctgen,  ftieg,  gefttegen,  to  ascend,  mount,  I., 

133,  2. 
©tein,  wi.,-e,  + stone, 
©teinme^,  m.,  w.,  also  strong,  stone-cutter, 
ftetnreid) -f- stony,  very  rich,  433,  4. 
fterben,  ftarb,  geftorben,  +  to  die,  IV.,  135, 3; 

(  + starve,  fttrbft,  ftilrbe,  rarely  ftarbe). 
ftieBen,  ftob,  geftoben,  fly,  scatter  like  dust, 

I.,  134,  2  ;  (bu  ftieSft,  older  fteubft). 
©ttft,  gender  and  meaning  see  58. 
fiinfen,  ftanf,  geftunlen,  +  stink,  lU.,  135,1; 

(ftftnfe,  rarely  ftunfe). 
ftol3,  proud,  74. 
fto^en,  ftic^,   geflo^en,  push,  thrust,  VII., 

131 ;  458,  2 ;  (bu  fto^t,  er  ftiifst). 
flraff,  stretched,  tight,  74. 
©ttauc^,  m.,  -e  and  -er,  shrub, 
fired  en  +  stretch,  in  §  79  to  die. 
ftrei(!^en,   \ix\6),   geftrid)en,  +  strike  out,  + 

stroke,  I.,  133  1. 
flretten,  ftrttt,  geftritten,  contend,  I.,  133, 1 ; 

Q)U  ftreiteft)  \  "strong,"  438,  3. 
©tu6c, /.,  sittmg- room  (  + stove), 
©tul^t,  m.,  — e.  chair,  +  stool,  throne, 
flunb,  pret.  of  fiei^en,  q.  v. 
-ftunb  m  comp.,  531,  2. 
©tute,  mare,  +  stud,  430, 1. 
ftufeen,  be  startled,  clip,  <  same  root  as 

fto^en  ;  see  535 ;  bu  ftu^eft,  118,  2. 
fud^en  +  seek,  454,  3. 
©iicl&t,  /.,  w.,  passion,  mania,  396  ;  or'ig., 

lingering  disease ;  +  sick. 
-fii(!^tig  in  comp.,  538,  2,  b. 
©ilben,  m.,  -i^,  +  south, 
©anbflut,  f.,w.,  Deluge,  494,  3. 
fa^  +  sweet. 
i,  pronunc.  of,  33,  35- 


t,  pronunc.  of,  35  ;  see  tl) ;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  408.  1;  413:  413,1; 
414,  1 ;  description  of,  384,  1 ;  in  j, 
389,  3,  4  :  excrescent,  87  j  89  ;  93, 1 ; 
491,2;  513,2,3;  stops  mto  spirants 
before,  413  ;  tr,  414,  1. 

-t,  noun-suffix,  513  ;  fem.  gend.,  161,  2 ; 
163,5. 

-t,  in  the  participle  of  weak  verbs, 
453. 

-t,  2.  pers.   sg.    in   pret-pres.  verbs, 
470,  2. 

SEafel, /.,  w.,  formal  meal ;  6ei  — ,  at  +  table. 

arag,  m.,  -c,  +  day. 

taugen,  to  be  fit,  +  do,  471,  5. 

Staufenb,  n.,  -e,  +  thousand,  336. 

tch,  G.  correspondents  of,  414,  3. 

-te,  suf.  in  ordinals,  80,  530. 

-te,  in  pret.,  117;  454,  1. 

teilS,  in  part ;  in  comp.  with  poss.  pron.,  8  7. 


384    woRD-iiyfDEX  Ai^D  german^-e:n^glish  vocabulary. 


-tel,  in  comp.,  533,  2. 

-ter,  noun-suf.,  508. 

teta,  see  i\)ht. 

Teutones,  493, 3. 

t^r  pronunc.  of,  35  ;  origin  of,  363,  3 ; 

384,  1, 
t^at  +  did,  3  74,  6  ;  390  ;  476,  2. 
5£I)or,  gend,  and  meaning,  163,  4 ;  408, 1. 
a^vane,  tear,  430, 1. 
S^ron,  m.,  -e  and  -en,  +  throne,  63, 1. 
thwx,  t^at,  get^an,  +  do,  136,  3;  454,  l; 

476;   as   an  auxil.,    374,  6;    394,  1; 

(tpte). 
SEMr,  /.,  w.,  +  door,  408,  1 ;  430, 1. 
apiivc^en,  w,,  -,  little  door. 
%m,  w.,  -e,  animal  (deer). 
%i\^,  ?w.,  -e,  table  (  + disk,  +  dish). 
Soc^tev,/.,  ^,  +  daughter,  46,  48,  408,  1. 
^ob,  m.,  -eg,  jOiJ.  of,  173. 
toll,  mad,  +  dull,  74. 
tvagen,  trug,  gctragen,  carry,  VI.,  139;  (bu 

trdiift). 
SEranI,  m..  -e,  +  drink. 
trauen  (with  D.),  to  trust, 
tieffen,   tvaf,   getroffen,  hit,  IV.,  137;   (bu 

tviffft,  tviff). 
treibcn,  ixm,  getrie6en,  +  drive,  I.,  133,  2. 
trcten,  trat,  getreten,  +  tread,  step,  V.,  138, 

1 ;  (bu  trittft,  er  tritt,  tvitt  or  trete). 
trtcfen,  troff,  getroffen,  +  to  drip,  drop,  II., 

134, 1 ;  463  ;  (bu  triefft,  rarely  tveufft). 
triegen,  see  tviigen. 
trinten,  trani,  gctrunfen,  + drink.  III.,  135, 

1 ;  (trftnte,  older  triinle). 
tro(fen  +  dry,  534,  4. 
3;ropf(en)  m.,  -,  +  drop,  46,  4. 
Stropf,  m.,  -e,   fool,    orig.  "struck  with 

paralysis." 
tre^,  in  defiance,  in  spite  of,  303,  9. 
tvijften,  to  comfort,  535,  1,  a  ;  (troftete). 
-trunlen,  intoxicated,  538. 
SCrflbfal,  /.,  -e,  sorrow. 
SEtummer,  a  pi.,  ruins,  59. 
trugen,  trog,  getrogen,  to  cheat, II.,  134, 2 : 

133  ;  (bu  trftgft,  older  treugft). 
%\x^,  n.,  -e§,  -er,  cloth,  shawl,  58,  85. 
-turn,  +  -dom,  57,  4;  mostly  neut.  gend., 

161,  3  ;  origin  of,  501 ;  515,  5. 
^,  pronunc  of,  389,  3  ;    414,  1 ;   fe  —  j,  j, 

535,  J,  5.  3;  sees. 


u. 

u,  pronunc.  of,  36  ;  description  of,  368, 1, 
2 ;  <  uo,  488,  4  ;  u  —  o,  405  ;  +nasalis 
and  liquida  so?ians,  459,  3,  a. 

ue,  as  sign  of  umlaut,  363,  2. 

urn  +5U,  in  order  to,  391, 1,  4,  R. ;  335, 1 ; 
338,  1 ;  304,  7;  in  comp.  verbs,  549, 
4;  +fo,  334. 

umrungen,  surrounded,  see  ringen. 

un-  +  -un,  accent,  433,  6  ;  516, 10. 

unb  +  and,  319;  +inversion,  339,  1. 

-ung  +  -ing,  506,  2;  gend.,  161,  2. 

un§,  D.  and  A.  of  irir,  +us,  to  us,  81  ;  also 
reft.,  83  ;  and  reciprocal  pron.,  84. 

unfer,  G.  of  wit,  81. 


unjer,  poss.  pron.,  +  our,  85. 

unfrev,  for  un^er,  83. 

untev-,  ac0.,  lower,  +  under,  76,  2. 

untev,  prep.,  +  under,  306,  8, 10;  in  comp. 
verbs,  549,  5. 

Unterfct)ieb,  m.,  -e§,  -c,  difference,  458,  3. 

Untertt)an,  m.,  w.,  subject  (of  a  rulei-),  63, 1. 

Uv-  +  or-,  516,  9. 

Itva^ne,  great  grandmother  in  §  143. 

urtav,  arable,  536,  1. 

a,  pronunc.  of,  31  ;  sign  of  umlaut,  363, 
2  ;  368,  4  ;  description  of,  367  ;  368, 
3,  4 ;  <  tie,  488,  4  ;  it  —  t,  489,  2. 

it6ev  +  over,  306, 7:  in  comp.  verbs,  549,  3. 

ii'6erfat)rett,  to  cross. 

il6er:^ou'pt,  in  general,  433  ;  553,  3. 


»,   pronunc.   of,  37;    380,  1,  2 ;   see   f; 
415,  1. 

aSater,  m.,  ^,  +  father,  46,  48,  2  ;   411  ; 
478.4. 

aSatertanb,  n.,  -e§,  -f,+ fatherland. 
»er-  +  for-,  516,  11 ;  545  ;  in  certain  par- 
ticiples, 395,  2  ;  545,  JR. 
oerbevBen,  werbavb,  werborben,  to  spoil  (intr.), 

ni.,  135,3;  (bu  tjerbirtft,  i^evbirb,  verbi'ivbe, 

rarely  verbarbe). 
2Serbienft,  gend.  and  meaning,  163,  3. 
vevbient,  deserving,  meritorious,  395,  2. 
Derbrie^cn,  vevbvojj,   ijerbrcncn,  to  vex,  II., 

134,  1 ;  (bu   tjerbrie^cft  or  »evbrie^t,  old 

uerbreu^t). 
wergeffen,  Bcrga^,  ucrgeifen,  +  to  forget,  V.,  ' 

138,  1 ;  past  part,  in  comp.,  395,  2,  a  ; 

(bu  »ergifteft  or  i^crgijit,  er  I'cvgi^t,  »ergt|). 
wer^aitni^m&^ig,  comparatively, 
toertaufen,  to  sell. 
Kerlaffen,  to  forsake,  see  laffen. 
Berlegen,  embarrassed,  past  part.,  395,  2,  a; 

534,  4. 
Mevlevnen,  to  forget  how  to  .  .  .,  + unlearn, 
werlieren,  tevlor,  »erlDven,  +  lo6e,  II.,  134, 2; 

416. 
eermoge,  by  virtue  of,  303,  11. 
toeriuirren,  to  confuse,  strong  past  part.,  »er= 

tti0rren=compHcated,  VIII.,  133. 
aSetter,  m.,  w.  or  mixed  decl.,  cousin,  63, 1. 
2Ste^,  n.,  -e§,  -c,  cattle  (+fce),  410,  3. 
»iet,  much,  compar.  of,  76, 1  ;  100  ;  199, 

1,2;   363. 
vixen  +  5yiici}fin,  504. 
r>oU-  +  full,  74,  549,  6. 
vollcr  +  full,  319, 1. 
tooEfommen,  perfect,  431, 1. 
aSoIf,  n.,  -ev,  people,  +  folk. 
aSo'IfSett^moIogieV  folk-etymology,  494,  2. 
tjom  <  Bon  betn,  from  the,  40. 
»on,  from,  by,  303, 15;  compar.  with  burc^, 

369;  304,2;  306,7,  i?.;  +  jelbft,  of . . . 

self,  349,  2. 
bor  +  before,  in  point  of,  306,  9  ;  516,  5 ; 

compar.  with  fur,  304,  3. 
Borau'§wei'fttubigen,  announce  beforehand, 

546,  2. 
vorber-,  the  front  one,  76,  2  (short  o). 


WUED-IKDEX  AKD   GEBMAN^-El^rGLISH   VOCABULARY.      285 


SBorfa^r,  m.^  w.,  ancestor. 
Bor'^aSenb,  intended,  394, 1, 
ffiotmunb,  m.,  -eg,  --er,  guardian. 


W,  pronunc.  of,  38  ;  description  of,  3  79  ; 
380,  2;  loss  of,  417,  2;  Eug.  corre- 
spondents of,  410,  3  ;  415,  2  ;  490.  6. 

wa^fen,  lou^^,  gewadjicn,  grow,  +  wax,  VL, 
139 ;  417,  5,  a  ;  (bit,  er  aHictjft), 

2Bagen,  »i.,+ wagon,  +  wain,  494,1;  48,2. 

SBaggo'n,  m.,  pi.  in  -§,  car,  494, 1. 

wain  +  SBagen,  494,1. 

reat)v,  true,  74. 

SBa^r^eit,  /.,  w.,  truth. 

SBalb,  m.,  -e8,  -er,  forest,  +wold. 

njalten,  rale  (tuattete). 

wanbeln,  walk,  change,  118,  3. 

wanbern  +  wander,  118,3. 

»ann+when;  for  relat.  pron.,  358  ;  «wy., 
330,1;  e^^^m.,  551,  2. 

war,  pret.  of  )ein,  g.  v. ;  also  wesan. 

toaxi,  pret.  sing,  of  icevDen,  111,  2;  460. 

warum  +  why,  +  wherefore,  351,4;  551, 2. 

wag,  interrog.  pron.,  93  ;  444  ;  use  of, 
351 ;  +  G.,  351,  1 ;  preceded  by  ju, 
tnit,  351,  3 ;  with  fflr  and  ein,  144, 
353;  force  of  icatum,  351,  4;  relat. 
pron.,  93  ;  356  ;  356,  2  ;  indef.  pron., 
96;  304;  360. 

wag,  archaic  of  wesan,  466,  1. 

wa^(^en,  wujc^,  gewa^c^en,  +  wash,  VI.,  139 ; 
413  ;  (bu  way^eft  or  waf(^t). 

SBaffer,  n.,  -,+ water,  414,  1,  Ex. 

w&gen,  see  wiegeu. 

wa|renb,  during,  303,  11;  conj.,  330, 1. 

-wartg,  +  -ward,  553,  2. 

"weak,"  438,3. 

weben,  wob,  gewo6ett,+ weave,  VIII.,  133  ; 
(bu  webft) ;  weak  =  to  move. 

webcv  —  no^  +  neither  —  nor  ;  +  whether, 
444,  3 ;  in  compar.  clauses,  333,  Ex. 

-wcgen,  on  account  of,  in  com  p.  with  pron., 
87,  89;  prepos.,  303,  13. 

we^  t^un  +  D.,  to  pain,  see  t:^un. 

SBeib,  n.,  -eg,  -er,+ woman, + wife,  166. 

weic^,  soft  ( +  weak). 

wei(^cn,  wic^,  gewic^en,  to  yield,  I.,  133, 1 ; 
weak  =  to  soften. 

aaSei^nac^ten,  Christmas,  439,  1. 

wetl,  because,  337;  +  while,  330, 1. 

-weife,  -wise,  553,  3. 

weifen,  wieg,  gcwlefen,  show,  I.,  133,  2. 

wcigfagen,  prophecy,  547,  3  ;  (p.  p.  geweigs 

wet^,  see  wiffen. 

wel^,  interrog.  pron.,  93,  2;  444,  2;  with 

ein,  144;    353;   relat.   pron.,   93,  2; 

355,    356;    indef.    pron.,    96,    360; 

eiym.f  415,  2. 
wem,  D.  of  wer,  q.  v. ;  93, 1. 
wenben,  wanbte,  gewanbt,   turn   (  +  wend), 

119, 1 ;   397  ;   453  ;  (bu  wenbeft,  pret. 

subj.  wenbete). 
wentg,  little,  few ;  comparison  regular  or 

as  m  76, 1. 


wcnn,   conJ.,  +  when,  =  if  in    temporal 

cl.,    330,  1  ;     =   if  in    concessive  cl., 

339  ;  =  if  in  condit.  cl.,  340 ;  etym., 

551,2. 
wev  +  who,  interrog.    pron.,   93  ;    351 ; 

410,  3;    444;    relat.    pron.,    93,   3; 

354;    356;    indef.  pron.,  96;   354; 

360;  339. 
werben,  taaxi,  geworben,  recruit,  sue  for, 

in.,  135,  3 ;  (bu  wirbft,  wirb,  wftrbe  or 

wirbe). 
werben,  warb  or  wurbe,  geworben,  become 

(  + worth).  III.,  135,  3;   infl.  of,  110; 

111,  2;   460,  1;  in  passive,  3  73  ;  in 

comp.  tenses,  383,  2-5  ;  +  ju,  303, 16; 

(bu  wivft,  er  wirb,  werbe,  wfirbe). 
werfen,  warf,  geworfen,  throw,  III.,  135,  3 ; 

(bu  wirfft,  wtrf,  wilrfe  or  wftrfe). 
2Berf,  w.,  -eg,  -e,  +work,  60. 
weg,  weffen,  we^,  93, 1 ;  356,  4. 
wefen,  wesan,  V.,  138, 1 ;  411 ;  466. 
wegl)atb,  wherefore,  93, 1. 
wejfent-,  in  comp.,  93, 1. 
2Bi*t,  m.,  -e,  + wight,  +  whit, 
wiber,  against,  304,  8:  in  comp.  verbs, 

549,7. 
wibmen,  dedicate  (iribmete),  118,  2. 
wie, +  how,  as,  444,  1  ;  in  tempor.  clauses, 

330,  1,  2 ;   in  compar.  cl.,  333  ;  after 

comparative,  333,  2. 
wieber,  ac^t;.,  again,  in  comp.  verbs,  549,8. 
wiegen,  wog,  gewogen,  + weigh,  VIII.,  133; 

(also  wagen,  bu  wiegft). 
wilb  +  wlld. 

Witt,  see  wotten  ;  367,  6. 
wttten,  for  the  sake  of,  in  comp.  with  pron., 

87,  89  ;  prepos.,  303,  14. 
wtnben,  wanb,  gewunben,  + wind.  III.,  135, 

1 ;  (bu  wiubeft). 
wiHen,  wu^te,  gewu^t,  for  infl.  see  135, 1; 

413,  2 ;  471,  1 ;  473,  1 ;  compar.  with 

fennen,  Jonnen,  367, 1. 
with+ wiber,  306,8. 

SBittum,  n.,  -e,  jointure,  allowance,  501. 
Wi-Hr)  +  where,  supplants  cases  of  interrog., 

and  relat.  pron.,  351,  2  ;  358  ;  in  local 

clauses,   331 ;    in  tempor.  cl.,  330,  1  ; 

in  condit.  cl.,  340,  340,  4 ;   origin  of, 

551,2. 
wofern,  conJ.,  in  so  far  as,  336  ;    340 ; 

340,  2. 
wo^l  +  well,  pronunc.  of,  381;  339;  489, 

1;  position  of,  354;  399,  2,  a. 
woMgebcren,  (Your)  Honor, lit.  +  well  born. 
wolXen,  wotlto,  gewoUt,  +  will,  be  willing, 

for  infl.  see  135,  7,  and  108,  2  ;  473, 

2;  special  force  of,  367,  6 ;   379,  3; 

383,  5. 
womoglit^,  if  possible,  340,  4. 
worben,  past  part,  of  werben,  108,  5. 
2Bort,  7i.,  -e  and  -er,+word,  58. 
SBunber,  n.,  -,  +  wonder,  see  nel^men. 
wurbe,  pret.  of  werben,  111,  2. 
2Burm,  m.,  -er,  and  -e,  +  worm. 
wu|te,  see  wif^en. 
2Barbe,  /.,  w.,  dignity, + worth. 


286      WORD-I^DEX   AKD   GERMAN -EI^GLISH   VOCABULARY. 


S,  pronimc.  of,  39;   389,2;  417,5, a; 
EngL  X  as  symbol,  395. 


«. 


t),  pronunc.  of,  31. 


J,  pronunc.  of,  30 ;  389, 3,  4  ;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  409,  1  ;  414, 1  ;  490,  2  ; 
535,l,i?.  2. 

ja^m  +  tame,  74,  398. 

Saf^n,  m.,  -^e,  +  tooth,  409, 1 ;  417, 1. 

jart,  tender,  74. 

j&Bmen  +  to  tame,  535, 1, «. 

^ft^re,  /.,  M>.,  +  tear,  430, 1. 

je^n  +  ten,  77,  589. 

3eic^en,  w.,  -,+ token. 

jeic^nen,  draw,  delineate,  118, 1. 

jeiben,  jie^,  gesiet)cn,   accuse,  I.,  13»,  2 ; 

395;  463. 
-aen,  verb-suf.,  539,  3. 
jcr-  +  dis-,  verb-pref.,  546. 
gcrvi^en,  to  tear  to  pieces,  see  ret^cn. 
^euge,  m.,  w.,  witness. 


jie^en,  jog,  gejogen,  draw,  II.,  134, 2  ;  416; 

(bu  jeuc^ft,  jeud)  are  archaic), 
-jig  +  -ty  in  numerals,  539,  1. 
itttern,  tremble,  eiytn.,  457,  3. 
ju  +  to,  303,  16;  before  inf.,  391;  before 

adj.,  391,  4  ;    333,  3 ;   see  gegen  and 

3u6er,  tub,  etym.,  398. 

3u(ier,  m.,  no  pi.,  +  sugar. 

jufolge,  in  accordance  with,  303, 15. 

gum  <  ju  bent  +  to  the,  40. 

Hunft,  /.,  -^e,  guild,  398. 

3unge,  /.,  «».,  + tongue,  414,  1,  Ex. 

jur  <  ju  ber  +  to  the, /em.,  40. 

juril'(fbringen  + bring  back,  see  bringen. 

jufammen,  together. 

jrear,  to  be  sure,  339 ;  555,  3  ;  position 

of,  354. 
jtt5een  + twain,  +  two,  79;  539. 
jwei+two;    infl.  of,  78;  form  and  gend. 

of,  79 ;  539. 
3»elf  + twelve,  77  ;  539  ;  489, 1. 
3t»ie-+  two-,  530,1. 
3tt)ier  + twice,  531,2. 
jiDingen,  jwang,   gejwungen,  to  force.  III., 

135,  1. 
5tKifc^en+ between,  306,  10;  compar.  with 

untcr,  306,8;  305,  1,2. 
j»D  +  two,/em.,  79;  539. 
z,  Grimm'^s  sign  for  the  sound  between 
^  z  and  6,  414;  >s,  490,  2. 


APPENDIX. 


I.   Fuller  Inflections  for  Part  I.,  Section  I. 
II.  Alphabetical  List  of  Strong  and  Irregular 
Verbs. 


DECLENSION    OF    NOUNS. 


I.     Strong   Declension. 

Characteristics :  the  G.  sing,  ends  in  -e§  or  -g.  Upon  the 
four  ways  of  forming  the  plural  the  division  into  classes  is 
based. 

2.  I:  Class.  Characteristics :  no  sufHx  in  the  pL,  but  there 
may  be  umlaut  of  the  stem- vowel. 

a.  No  umlaut. 


Masc.  ber  §ebel,  the  lever 

Neut.  'tiixi  SBunbcr,  the  wonder 

Sing,  N.    ber  §eBel 

Sing.  N. 

ba§  aSunber 

G.    be§§eBel§ 

G. 

be§  SSunberg 

D.    bem  §ebel 

D. 

bem  SSunber 

A.    ben  §ebel 

A. 

ba§  2Bunber 

Plu.  N.    bie^ebel 

Plu.  N. 

bie  SSunber 

G.    ber§e6el 

G. 

ber  SSunber 

D.    ben  §ebeln 

D. 

ben  SKunbern 

A.    bie  §ebel 

A. 

bie  SSunber 

h.  With  umlaut. 

Masc.  ber  ©arten,  the  garden 

Masc. 

ber  53rubeiv  the  brother 

Sing.  N.    ber  ©arten 

Sing.  N. 

ber  33ruber 

G-.    be^  ©arten§ 

G. 

beg  33ruber§ 

D.    bem  ©arten 

D. 

bem  Sruber 

A.    ben  ©arten 

A. 

ben  33ruber 

Plu.  N.    bie©arten 

Plu.  N. 

bie  SBriiber 

G.    ber  ©arten 

G. 

ber  SBriiber 

,    D.    ben^cirten 

D. 

ben  SBriibem 

A.    bie  ©arten 

A. 

bie  ^riiber 

290 


APPENDIX   OF  FORMS. 


Fem.  bie  ^^od^tcr,  the  daughter 

Sing.  N.  bie  %t>6^itx 

G.  ber  ^od^ter 

D.  ber  Stod^ter 

A.  bie  ^od^ter 

Plu.  N.  bie  Xod^ter 

G.  ber  ^6(i)ter 

D.  ben  Stod^tern 

A.  bie  ^5d^ter 


Neut.  hd^  ^lofter,  the  cloister 

Smg.  N.  ba§  ^lofler 

G.  be§  ^lofterg 

D.  bem  ^lofter 

A.  ba§  ^lofter 

PZ?^.  N.  bie  ^lofter 

G.  ber  ^lofter 

D.  ben  ^loftern 

A.  bie  m\itx 


3.     II.  Class.     Characteristics :  the  plural  ends  in  -e,  but 
there  is  no  umlaut  of  the  stem- vowel. 


Masc.  ber  ^fab,  the  path 

Sing.  N.  ber  ^fab 

G.  be§  ^fabeg 

D.  bem  $fabe 

A.  ben  $fab 

Plu.  N.  bieqjfabe 

G.  ber  $fabe 

D.  ben  ^faben 

A.  bie  ^fabe 

Neut.  bag  Xlfov,  the  gate 

Sing.  N.  bag  ^^or 

G.  beg  ^^oreg 

D.  bem  3::^ore 

A.  bag  ^^or 

Plu.  N.  bie  SC^ore 

G.  ber  ^^ore 

D.  ben  ^^oren 

A.  bie  ^]()ore 


Neut.  bag  ^reiij,  the  cross 

Sing.  N.  bag  ^reug 

G.  beg  ^reujeg 

D.  bem  ^reu^e 

A.  bag  ^reuj 

Plu.  N.  bie  ^reu^e 

G,  ber  ^reu^e 

D.  ben  .^reujen 

A.  bie  ^reu^e 

Fem.  bie  ^infterni^,  the  darkness 

Sing.  N.  bie  ginfternig 

G.  ber  ginftemig 

D.  ber  ginfternig 

A.  bie  ginftemig 

Plu.  N.  bie  ginfterniffe 

G.  ber  ginfterniffe 

D.  ben  ^^infterniffen 

A.  bie  ginftemiffe 


4.     III.  Class.    Characteristics 
the  stem-vowel  has  the  umlaut. 


the  plural  ends  in  -e  and 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS. 


291 


Ma8c.  ber  @o!^n,  the  son 

Fem.  btc  ^auft,  the  fist 

Sing.  N.    ber  ©ol^n 

Sing,  N. 

bie  g=auft 

G.    be§  ©o^neg 

G. 

ber  gauft 

D.    bem  ©ol^ne 

D. 

ber  gauft 

A.    ben  ©ol^n 

A. 

bie  gauft 

Plu.  N.    bie  ©o^ne 

Plu,  N. 

bie  gdufte 

G-.    ber  ©ol^ne 

G. 

ber  gdufte 

D.    ben  ©o^nen 

D. 

ben  gciuften 

A.    bie  ©o^ne 

A. 

bie  gciufte 

Fem.  bie  @tabt,  the  city 

Fem.  bie  tmift,  <Ae  ar< 

Sing.  N.    bie  ©tabt 

Sing.  N. 

bie  ^unft 

G.    ber  ©tabt 

G. 

ber  ^unft 

D.    ber  ©tabt 

D. 

ber  ^unft 

A.    bie  ©tabt 

A. 

bie  ^unft 

PZ^*.  N.    bie  ©tcibte 

Plu,  N. 

bie  ^iinfte 

G.    ber  ©tcibte 

G. 

ber  ^iinfte 

D.    ben  ©tcibten 

D. 

ben  ^iinften 

A.    bie  ©tcibte 

A. 

bie  ^iinfte 

5.  IV.  Class.  Characteristics  :  the  plural  ends  in  -er  and  the 
stem- vowel  has  the  umlaut.  But  nouns  ending  in  -turn  have  the 
umlaut  in  this  suffix,  because  they  were  originally  compound 
nouns  in  which  the  last  noun  only  is  inflected. 


Masc.  ber  SSalb,  the  forest 

Neut.  bas  SBktt,  the  leaf 

Sing.  N. 

ber  SSalb 

Sing.  N. 

bag  33Iatt 

G. 

be§  28albe§ 

G. 

be0  33latte§ 

D. 

bem  SSalbe 

D. 

bem  SBIatte 

A. 

ben  SSalb 

A. 

bag  33Iatt 

Plu.  N. 

bie  SBcilber 

Plu.  N. 

bieSBIcitter 

G. 

ber  SSdlber 

G. 

ber  SBlatter 

D. 

ben  SScilbem 

D. 

ben  SBIcittern 

A. 

bie  SSalber 

A. 

bie  S3(atter 

292 


APPENDIX   OF   FORMS. 


Neut.  bag 

^ergogt^um,  the  duchy 

Sing.  N. 

ba§  ^erjogtum 

G. 

bc0  ^ergogtumg 

D. 

bem  §er5ogtum(e) 

A. 

bag  ^ergocjtum 

Plu.  N. 

bie  §er§ogtumer 

G. 

ber  ^ergogtiimer 

D. 

ben  §erjO0lumem 

A. 

bie  §ergogtumer 

6.     Weak  Declension. 


Characteristics :  Masc.  nouns  have  -en  or  -n  in  every  case 
and  number  except  in  the  N.  sing.  Fern,  nouns  have  this 
ending  in  the  plural  only. 


Masc.  ber  ®vaf,  the  count 

Masc.  ber  l^oitje,  the  lion 

Sing.^.    ber@raf 

Sing.  N. 

ber  SotDe 

G.    beg  ©rafen 

G. 

beg  Soit)en 

D.    bem  (^rafen 

D. 

bem  SoiDen 

A.    ben  ©rafen 

A. 

ben  SotDen 

Plu,  N.    bie  ©rafen 

Plu.  N. 

bie  £oh)en 

G.    ber  ©rafen 

G. 

ber  Sottjen 

D.    ben  ©rafen 

D. 

ben  Sotoen 

A.    -bie  ©rafen 

A. 

bie  2ott)en 

Masc.  ber  ^omtt%  the  comet 

Fem.  bie 

ii'cgioif ,  the  legion 

Sing.  N.    ber  ^omet' 

Sing.^. 

bie  Segion' 

G.    beg  ^ome'ten 

G. 

ber  Segion' 

D.    bem  ^ome'ten 

D. 

ber  Segion' 

A.    ben  ^ome'ten 

A. 

bie  Segion' 

Plu.  N.    bie^ome'ten 

Phi.  N. 

bie  Segio'nen 

G.    ber  ^ome'ten 

G. 

ber  Segio'nen 

D.    ben  S^ome'ten 

D. 

ben  Segio  nen 

A.    bie  ^ome'ten 

A. 

bie  Segio'nen 

DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS. 


293 


Fem.  bie  ^rau,  the  woman 

Sing.  N.  bic  grau 

Gr.  ber  grau 

D.  ber  grau 

A.  bie  %xciw 

Plu,  N.  bie  grauen 

G.  ber  grauen 

D.  ben  grauen 

A.  bie  grauen 


Fem.  bie  ©abet,  the  fork 

Sing.  N.  bie  @abel 

G.  ber®abel 

D.  ber  ©abel 

A.  bie  ©abel 

Phi,  N.  bie  ©abeln 

G.  ber  ©abeln 

D.  ben  ©aBeln 

A.  bie  ©abeln 


7.     Mixed  Declension. 

Characteristics :    the  G.  sing,  ends  in  -eg  or  -§,  the  whole 
plural  ends  in  -en  or  -n. 


Masc.  ber  aJiaft,  i/ie  masi  {of  a  ship) 

Neut.  ha^ ' 

Miige,  ^Ae  eye 

Sing,!^. 

ber  ma\t 

Si7ig.  N. 

bag  Stuge 

G. 

beg  ma\m 

G. 

beg  Slugeg 

D. 

bem  ^afte 

D. 

bem  2(uge 

A. 

ben  3}iaft 

A. 

bag  Sluge 

Plu.  N. 

bie  ^aften 

Plu.  N. 

bie  5lugen 

G. 

ber  ma\Un 

G. 

ber  Slugen 

D. 

ben  SJlaften 

D. 

ben  2(ugen 

A. 

bie  ma\tm 

A. 

bie  3(ugen 

Masc.  ber  S)o!/tor,  the  doctor 

Masc.  ber 

^tiiat,  the  state 

Sing.l^. 

ber  Softer 

Sing.-^. 

ber  6taat 

G. 

beg  ©oftorg 

G. 

beg  ©taateg 

D. 

bem  ©oftor 

D. 

bem  ©taate 

A. 

ben  ®oftor 

A. 

ben  ©taat 

Plu.  N. 

bie  ^ofto'ren 

Plu.  N. 

bie  ©taaten 

G. 

ber  ®o!to'ren 

G. 

ber  ©taaten 

D. 

ben  ^ofto'ren 

D. 

ben  (BtaaUn 

A. 

bie  2)o!to'ren 

A. 

bie  <BtaaUn 

294 


APPENDIX  OF  FORMS. 


Neut.  ha^  (Stubium,  the  study 

Neut.  baS  5Wlncvar,  the  mineral 

JSing.'^. 

ba§  Stubium 

Sing.  N.    ba§  TlxmxaV 

G. 

be§  (3tubtum§ 

G.    be§TOneraI§' 

D. 

bem  ©tubtum 

D.    bem  TOnerar 

A. 

ba§  ©tubium 

A.    bag  5D^tnerar 

Plu.  N. 

bte  ©tubien 

PZi^.  N.    bte  ^ineralten 

G. 

ber  6tubien 

G.    ber  Tlxmxa'lkn 

D. 

ben  ©tubien 

D.    ben  gj^ineralien 

A. 

bie  ©tubien 

A.    bte  TOnera'Iten 

Irregular  Noun,  ha9  ^erg,  the  heart 

Sing.l^. 

ba§  §er5 

Plu.  N.    bie  §er^en 

G. 

be§  §er^en§ 

G.    ber  ^er^en 

D. 

bem  ^er^en 

D.    ben  §er^en 

A. 

ba§  ©erj 

A.    bie  Serpen 

DECLENSION    OF   ADJECTIVES, 

8.     Strong  Declension,  without  any  limiting  word  like  the 
definite  article  or  the  demonstrative  pronoun. 


/Sing.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


good  father 

guter  3Sater 
0ute§  3Sater§ 
gutem  35ater 
guten  3Sater 


Plu.  N.  gute  3Sater 

G.  guter  3Sater 

D.  gutenSSdtem 

A.  gute  SSater 


good  mother 

gute  5!JJutter 
guter  3Jlutter 
guter  ^J^utter 
gute  Mutttx 

gute  gjliitter 
guter  !!Jlutter 
guten  gKiittern 
gute  9Jiutter 


good  child 

gute§  ^inb 
gute§  ^inbe§ 
gutem  ^inbe 
guteg  ^tnb 

gute  ^inber 
guter  ^inber 
guten  ^tnbem 
gute  ^tnber 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


295 


9.     Weak   Declension,  the   adjective    is    preceded    by  the 
definite  article  or  a  pronoun  declined  like  it. 


a. 

D. 
A. 


Sing,  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


Sing.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


D. 
A. 


the  green  tree 

ber  griine  S3aum  Plu.  N. 

be§  griinen  S8aume§  G. 

bem  griinen  33aume 
ben  griinen  SBaum 

the  green  meadow 
bie  griine  2Bief e  Sing.  N. 

ber  griinen  2Siefe  G. 

ber  griinen  2Biefe  D. 

bie  griine  SSiefe  A. 

the  gr em  field 
ba§  griine  gelb  Plu.  N. 

be§  griinen  gelbeS  G. 

bem  griinen  gelbe  D. 

ba§  griine  gelb  A. 


bie  griinen  SBciume 
ber  griinen  33aume 
ben  griinen  33dumen 
bie  griinen  SBciume 

bie  griinen  SSiefen 
ber  griinen  SSiefen 
ben  griinen  SSiefen 
bie  griinen  SSiefen 

bie  griinen  gelber 
ber  griinen  gelber 
ben  griinen  gelbern 
bie  griinen  gelber 


10.  Weak  Declension,  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  ein  a, 
!ein  no,  or  by  one  of  the  Possessive  Pronouns,  mein,  bein,  fein, 
unfer,  euer,  x^x,  my,  thy,  his,  our,  your,  their.  This  is  some- 
times called  the  'mixed'  declension. 


iny  fine  apple 

Sing. IS.    mein  fc^oner  3l^fel    .    Plu.  N. 

G.    meineS  fd^onen  3(^fel§  G. 

D.    meinem  fd^onen  Sl^fel  D. 

A.     meinen  fd^onen  2l^fel  A. 

my  fine  flower 

Sing.'N.    meine  fd^one  33Iume      Plu.  N. 

G.    meiner  fd^onen  Slume  G. 

D.    meiner  fd^onen  S3lume^         D. 

A.    meine  fd^one  33lume  A. 


meine  fd^onen  S^jfel 
meiner  fd^onen  S^fel 
meinen  fd^onen  Stpfein 
meine  fd^onen  S^)fel 

meine  fd^onen  S3Iumen 
meiner  fd^onen  S  lumen 
meinen  fd^onen  33Iumen 
meine  fd^onen  Slumen 


296  APPENDIX   OF  FORMS. 

my  fine  hook 

Sing.l^,    tnein  fd^oneg  SBuo)         l^ln.  N.  meine  fd^onen  33uci^er 

G.    meineS  fcf)onen  Sud^e§  G.  meiner  fd)onen  Siic^er 

D.    metnem  f(J)onen  S3uc^e  D.  meinen  fd^onen  33uci5)ern 

A.     tnein  fc^one^  '^\x6:)  A.  meine  fd^onen  ^iid^er 

11.  Examples  of  adjectives  with  the  suffixes  -el  and  -er. 
As  to  the  dropping  of  -e  see  §  71. 

our  noble  lord  their  lean  ox 

Sing.^.  unfer  ebler  §err  Sing.  N.  t^r  magrer  D6)^ 

G.  unferg  eblen  §erm  G.  i^re§  magern  Dd^fen 

D.  unferm  eblen  §errn  D.  i^rem  magern  Dd^fen 

A.  unfern  eblen  §erm  A.  i^ren  magem  Ddfifen 

Plu.  N.  unfre  eblen  §err(e)n  Phi.  N.  i^re  magem  Dd^f en 

G.  unfrer  eblen  §err(e)n  G.  i^rer  magem  Dd^fen 

D.  unfern  eblen  §err(e)n  D.  i^ren  magem  Dd^f en 

A.  unfere  eblen  §err(e)n  A.  i^re  magem  Dd^fen 

12.  Examples  of  the  inflection  of  compared  adjectives. 

no  dearer  friend 

Sing.l^.  !ein  teurerer  greunb      Plu.  ^.  feine teureren greunbe 

G.  !eine§  teureren  greunbe§        G.  feiner  teureren  greunbe 

D.  feinem  teureren  g^reunbe         D.  feinenteurerengreunben 

A.  leinen  teureren  greunb  A.  leine  teureren  greunbe 

this  more  hitter  kernel 

Sing.^.    biefer  Bittrere  ^em       Plu.  N.    biefe  bittreren  ^eme 
G.    biefe§  bittreren  ^eme§  G.    biefer  bittreren  ^eme 

D.    biefem  bittreren  ^eme  D.    biefen  bittreren  ^emen 

A.    biefen  bittreren  ^em  A.     biefe  bittreren  ^eme 

that  most  serene  face 
Sing.  N.    jeneS  l^eiterfte  ©efid^t 
G.    jeneS  ^eiterften  ©efid^teg 
D.    jenem^eiterften  ©efidfite 
A.     jeneg  l^eiterfle  ©efid^t 


DECLENSION   OF  ADJECTIVES. 


297 


Plu.  N.    jene  l^eiterften  ©efid^ter 

Gr.    jener  l^eiterften  ©efic^ter 

D.    jenen  l^eiterften  ©efid^tern 

A.    jene  l^eiterften  ©eftd^ter 

13.  ] 

Examples  of  the  inflection  of  the  adjective  §0^,  high. 

a  high  tower                                     no  higher  tower 

Sing.'N, 

ein  l^ol^cr  %\xxm          Sing.  N.    fein  l^o^erer  ^urm 

G. 

eineg  ^o^en  ^urme§              G.    !eine§  l^o^eren  5t^urme§ 

D. 

einem  l^ol^en  ^urme              D.    feincm  l^o^eren  %\xxmz 

A. 

einen  l^o^en  %\xxm               A.    feinen  l^b^eren  ^urm 

the  highest  towers 

Plu,  N.    bie  l^od^ften  Mrme 

G.    ber  ^oc^ften  %vixmt 

D.    ben  l^od^ften  Wurmen 

A.    bie  l^od^ften  ^iirme 

CONJUGATION    OF    THE    "WEAK 
ItAtn,  to  praise. 
Principal  parts :  loben,  lobte,  geloBt. 

14.    Active  Voice. 

Subjunctive, 


VERB 


Indicative. 

gd^  loBe,  I  praise 
bu  lobft,  thou  praisest 
er  lobt,  he  praises 
tDir  loBen,  we  praise 
if)r  lobt,  you  praise 
fie  loben,  they  praise 

3ci^  lobte,  I  praised 

bu  lobteft,  thou  praisedst 

er  lobte,  he  praised 


Present. 

gd^  lobe^  I  may  praise 
bu  loBeft,  thou  mayest  praise 
er  lobe,  he  may  praise 
tt)ir  loben,  we  may  praise 
il^r  lobet,  you  may  praise 
fie  loben,  they  may  praise 
Preterit. 

Sci^  lobete,  I  might  praise 

bu  lobeteft,  thou  mightest  praise 

er  lobete,  he  might  praise 


298 


APPENDIX  OF  FOKMS. 


it)tr  lobten,  we  praised 
i^v  lobtet,  you  praised 
fie  lobten,  they  praised 

I  have  praised,  etc. 
S^  l^abe  gelobt 
bu  l^aft  gelobt 
er  Ij^at  gelobt 
tr)tr  l^aben  gelobt 
il^r  ^bt  Qelobt 
jte  ^aUn  gelobt 


I  had  praised,  etc. 
S^  IS^atte  Qclobt 
bu  l^atteft  gelobt 
er  l^atte  gelobt 
toir  Ij^atten  gelobt 
i(^r  l^attet  gelobt 
fte  ](^atten  gelobt 


toir  lobeten,  we  might  praise 
il^r  lobetet,  you  might  praise 
fie  lobeten,  they  might  praise 


Perfect. 


I  may  have  praised,  etc. 
^(i)  l^abe  gelobt 
bu  ^abeft  gelobt 
er  l^abe  gelobt 
toir  l^aben  gelobt 
i^r  l>abet  gelobt 
fie  ^aben  gelobt 


Pluperfect. 


I  might  have  praised,  etc. 
gd^  ^dtte  gelobt 
bu  Ij^citteft  gelobt 
er  l^dtte  gelobt 
toir  l^dtten  gelobt 
i^r  l^dttet  gelobt 
fie  l^dtten  gelobt 


First    Future. 


I  shall  praise,  etc. 
gd^  tt)erbe  loben 
bu  iDirft  loben 
er  it)irb  loben 
toir  toerben  loben 
il^r  twerbet  loben 
fie  toerben  loben 


I  shall  praise,  etc. 
Sd^  toerbe  loben 
bu  tperbeft  loben 
er  toerbe  loben 
h)tr  tt)erben  loben 
if;r  hjerbet  loben 
fie  ioerben  loben 


Second  Future. 
I  shall  have  praised,  etc.  I  shall  have  praised,  etc. 

Sd^  ttjerbe  gelobt  l^aben  3<^  \t>^x'o^  gelobt  l^aben 

bu  n)irft  gelobt  l^aben  bu  n^erbeft  gelobt  l^aben 

er  n)irb  gelobt  l^aben  er  irerbe  gelobt  l^aben 


CONJUGATION. 


299 


tt)ir  tcerben  gelobt  l^aben 
x^x  irerbct  gelobt  l^aben 
fie  toerben  gelobt  l^aben 


toir  hjerben  geloBt  ^ben 
il^r  h)erbet  gelobt  l^aben 
fie  h)erben  gelobt  l^aben 


First  Conditional. 

Second  Conditional. 

I  should  praise,  etc. 

I  should  have  praised,  etc. 

3(^  tDiirbe  loben 

^<S)  toiirbe  gelobt  l^aben 

bu  toiirbeft  loben 

bu  ioiirbeft  gelobt  l^aben 

er  iDiirbe  loben 

er  iriirbe  gelobt  l)ahzn 

toir  tDiirben  loben 

n)ir  h)urbcn  gelobt  i)ahm 

i^r  toiirbet  loben 

i^r  iDiirbet  gelobt  l^aben 

fie  tDitrben  loben 

fie  toiirben  gelobt  l^aben 

Imperative. 

Infinitives. 

£obe,  praise  (thou) 

Present,    Soben,  to  praise 

lobe  er,  let  him  praise 

Past,        gelobt  l^aben,   to  have 

loben  it)ir,  .\et  us  praise 

praised 

lobt,  praise  (you) 

loben  fie,  let  them  praise 

loben  6ie,  praise  (you) 

Participles. 

Present,     lobenb,  praising. 
Past,  gelobt,  praised. 


Indicative, 

I  am  praised,  etc. 
^c^  n)erbe  gelobt 
bu  tDirft  gelobt 
er  toirb  gelobt 
Juir  trerben  gelobt 
i^r  toerbet  gelobt 
fie  iwerben  gelobt 


S5.    Passive  Voice. 

Subjunctive, 
Present. 

I  may  be  praised,  etc. 
3ci^  it)erbe  gelobt 
bu  toerbeft  gelobt 
er  itjerbe  gelobt 
toir  toerben  gelobt 
i^r  toerbet  gelobt 
fie  toerben  gelobt 


300 


APPENDIX   OF  FORMS. 


Preterit. 


I  was  praised,  etc. 
3dE>  i»urbe  or  trarb  gelobt 
bu  tDurbeft  or  h)arbft  Qdoht 
er  irurbe  or  n^arb  gelobt 
U)ir  n)urben  gelobt 
t^r  U)urbet  gelobt 
fie  tpurben  gelobt 


I  might  be  praised,  etc. 
3c^  tPiirbe  gelobt 
bu  toiirbeft  gelobt 
er  tDiirbe  gelobt 
W'xx  itJiirben  gelobt 
i^r  it)urbet  gelobt 
fie  Iriirben  gelobt 


Perfect. 


I  have  been  praised,  etc. 
gd^  bin  gelobt  tDorben 
bu  bift  gelobt  ir)orben 
er  ift  gelobt  tt)orben 
it)ir  finb  gelobt  tt>orben 
x\)x  feib  gelobt  tuorben 
fie  finb  gelobt  iDorben 


I  may  have  been  praised,  etc. 
3c^  fei  gelobt  toorbcn 
bu  feift  gelobt  it)orben 
er  fei  gelobt  tworben 
iDir  f  eien  gelobt  it>orben 
il)r  feib  gelobt  toorben 
fie  feien  gelobt  hjorben 


Pluperfect. 


I  had  been  praised,  etc. 
3(^  toar  gelobt  tt)orben 
bu  irarft  gelobt  tcorben 
er  \t)ax  gelobt  ttjorben 
toir  it)aren  gelobt  h)orben 
il^r  tDaret  gelobt  n)orben 
fie  iDaren  gelobt  tDorbeu 


I  might  have  been  praised,  etc. 
3c^  tDcire  gelobt  itjorben 
bu  tocireft  gelobt  tr>orben 
er  iDcire  gelobt  h)orben 
hjir  h)aren  gelobt  tporben 
i^r  tDciret  gelobt  hjorben 
fie  twciren  gelobt  irorben. 


First  Future. 


I  shall  be  praised,  etc. 
gd^  n)erbe  gelobt  itjerben 
bu  luirft  gelobt  tuerben 
cr  it)irb  gelobt  irerben 
h)ir  h)erben  gelobt  irerben 
xi)x  h)erbet  gelobt  irerben 
fie  toerben  gelobt  toerben 


I  shall  be  praised,  etc. 
gdf)  tperbe  gelobt  n?erben 
bu  h)erbeft  gelobt  Juerben 
er  hjerbe  gelobt  it)erben 
tt)ir  tperben  gelobt  hjerben 
i^r  h)erbet  gelobt  it>erben 
fie  hjerben  gelobt  h)erben 


CONJUGATION.  301 

Second  Future. 
I  shall  have  been  praised,  etc.     I  shall  have  been  praised,  etc. 
Sd^  tuerbe  gelobt  toorben  fein        gc^  it)erbe  gelobt  ivorben  fein 
bu  it)trft  geloBt  hjorben  fein  bu  toerbeft  gelobt  hjorben  fein 

er  it)irb  gelobt  hjorben  fein  er  hjerbe  gelobt  lt>orben  fein 

irir  hjerben  gelobt  h)orben  fein       irir  ioerben  gelobt  irorben  fein 
i^r  tt)erbet  gelobt  toorben  fein        i^r  U)erbet  gelobt  toorben  fein 
fie  toerben  gelobt  toorben  fein        fie  ioerben  gelobt  tDorben  fein 

First  Conditional.  Second  Conditional. 

I  should  be  praised,  etc.  I  should  have  been  praised,  etc. 

gd^  ttjiirbe  gelobt  toerben  gd^  twiirbe  gelobt  toorben  fein 

bu  itjiirbeft  gelobt  tverben  bu  toiirbeft  gelobt  Iworben  fein 

er  iDiirbe  gelobt  toerben  cr  h^iirbe  gelobt  itjorben  fein 

toir  toiirben  gelobt  h)erben  toir  toiirben  gelobt  tt)orben  fein 

i^r  h?iirbet  gelobt  tuerben  i^r  hjiirbet  gelobt  toorben  fein 

fie  toiirben  gelobt  tnerben  fie  toiirben  gelobt  toorben  fein 

Imperative. 
©ei  or  tt)erbe  gelobt,  be  (thou)  praised 
er  fei  or  tt)erbe  gelobt,  let  him  be  praised 
(Seib  or  twerbet  gelobt,  be  (you)  praised 
fie  feien  or  hjerben  gelobt,  let  them  be  praised 
©eien  ©ie  or  toerben  ©ie  gelobt,  be  (you)  praised 

Infinitive. 
FresenL    gelobt  toerben,  to  be  praised 
Fast.         gelobt  tt)orben  fein,  to  have  been  praised 

1 6.     Examples  showing  the  use  of  the  connecting  vowel  C 
both  in  weak  and  strong  verbs,  see  §  118. 

reben,  rebete,  gerebet,  to  speak 

Pres.  Ind.  Pret.  Ind. 

'^6)  rebe  3d^  rebete 

bu  rebeft  bu  rebeteft 

er  rebet  er  rebete 


302  APPENDIX  OF  FORMS. 

h)tr  reben  toir  tebcten 

\f)x  rebet  il^r  rebetet 

fte  reben  fie  rebeten 

fra^en,  f^^agte,  gef^ja^t,  to  joke 

faffen,  fafete,  gefa^t,  to  seize 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Ind. 

3c§  frage  3^  faffe 

bu  f^a^eft  bu  f  affeft 

er  f^a|t  er  fagt 

ttjir  fpa^en  lt)ir  faffen 

ii)x  f^a^t  i^r  fafet 

fte  frafeen  fie  faffen 

toanbeln,  toanbelte,  geUjanbelt,  to  walk 
re4)nen,  rec^nete,  gerec^net,  to  reckon 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Ind. 

gd^  iranble  3<^  redone 

bu  toanbelft  bu  red^neft 

er  tDanbelt  er  red^net 

Voir  tDanbeln  toir  led^nen 

il^r  tuanbelt  ilfir  recfinet 

fie  n)anbeln  fie  re4)nen 

meiben,  mieb,  gemteben,  to  avoid 
reiten,  ritt^  geritten,  to  ride  (on  horseback) 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Ind. 

3d^  meibe  3d^  reite 

bu  metbeft  bu  reiteft 

er  meibet  er  reitet 

n)ir  meiben  ft)ir  reiten 

i^r  meibet  il^r  reitet 

fie  meiben  fie  reiten 

17.  Examples  of  strong  verbs  that  have  the  interchange 
of  e  and  i  or  ie  in  the  2.  and  3.  p.  sing.  pres.  ind.,  and  in  the  2. 
p.  sing,  of  the  imperative. 


CONJUGATION. 


303 


fterben,  ftarb,  geftorben,  to  die 
treten,  trat,  getreten,  to  tread 
lefen,  Ia§,  gelefen,  to  read 


Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Ind. 

S*  fterbe 

3c^  trete 

3*  lefe 

bu  fttrbft 

bu  trittft 

bu  lieft 

er  ftirbt 

er  tritt 

er  lieft 

h)ir  fterben 

toir  treten 

toir  lefen 

i^r  fterbt 

il^r  tretet 

i^r  lefet 

fie  fterben 

fie  treten 

fte  lefen 

Imper.,  ftirb 

Imper.,  tritt 

Imper.,  lie§ 

i8.    Example  of  a  separable  compound  verb   with   the 
auxiliary  verb  f  e  i  n  in  the  compound  tenses. 

au^gel^en,  ging  an^,  au^gegangen,  to  go  out. 


Indicative. 

1  go  out,  etc. 
3ci^  gelj^e  au^ 
bu  gei^ft  auS 
er  gel^t  axi^ 
toir  ge{)en  au§ 
i^r  ge^t  an^ 
fte  ge^en  a\x^ 


I  went  out,  etc. 
gd^  ging  aug 
bu  gingft  an^ 
er  ging  an^ 
h)ir  gingen  au§ 
i^r  gingt  au§ 
fie  gingen  au§ 


Present. 


Subjunctive, 


I  may  go  out,  etc. 
3c^  ge^e  a\i§ 
bu  gef)eft  au§ 
er  ge^e  au§ 
tt)ir  gelfjen  au§ 
i^r  gefjet  aug 
fie  ge^en  au§ 


Preterit. 


I  might  go  out,  etc. 
Sd^  ginge  au§ 
bu  gingeft  au§ 
er  ginge  au§ 
h)ir  gingen  aug 
i^r  ginget  au§ 
fie  gingen  au§ 


304 


APPENDIX  OF  FORMS. 


Perfect. 


I  have  gone  out,  etc. 
Sd^  bin  au^gegangen 
bu  bift  auggegangen 
er  ift  au§gegangen 
tt)ir  finb  auSgegangen 
i^r  feib  au§gegangen 
fie  finb  auSgegangen 


I  may  have  gone  out,  etc. 
^d)  fei  auggegangen 
bu  feift  auggegangen 
er  fei  auggegangen 
tDtr  feien  auggegangen 
\l)V  feiet  auggegangen 
fie  feien  auggegangen 


Pluperfect. 
I  had  gone  out,  etc.  I  might  have  gone  out,  etc. 


3d^  hjar  au^gegangen 
bu  tDarft  auSgegangen 
er  h)ar  au^gegangen 
\mx  tt»aren  au^gegangen 
i^r  h)aret  au§gegangen 
fie  iDaren  auggegangen 


3(^  h)are  auggegangen 
bu  h)areft  au^gegangen 
er  n)dre  auSgegangen 
it)ir  tt)dren  au^gegangen 
il^r  h)aret  au^gegangen 
fie  hJdren  au^gegangen 


First  Future. 


I  shall  go  out,  etc. 
Sd^  tperbe  augge^en 
bu  U)irft  au^ge^en 
er  toirb  au^gel^en 
loir  toerben  au^gel^en 
i^r  toerbet  au^gel^en 
fie  toerben  auSgeben 


I  shall  go  out,  etc. 
3d^  tt>erbe  augge^en 
bu  toerbefl  au^ge^en 
er  toerbe  au^gc^en 
tt>ir  tuerben  auC^ge^en 
if)r  it)erbet  aii§o,^l)cn 
fie  toerben  au^gc^en 


Second  Future. 


I  shall  have  gone  out,  etc. 
^6)  irerbe  au^gegangen  fein 
bu  h)irft  auggegangen  fein 
er  it)irb  auSgegangen  fein 
tDtr  hjerben  au^gegangen  fein 
\\)x  tDerbet  au^gegangen  fein 
fie  toerben  au^gegangen  fein 


I  shall  have  gone  out,  etc. 
gd^  twerbe  au^gegangen  fein 
bu  trerbeft  au^gegangen  fein 
er  tt)erbe  au^gegangen  fein 
h)ir  itjerben  au^gegangen  fein 
i^r  tDerbet  au^gegangcn  fein 
fie  hjerben  auegegangen  fein 


CONJUGATION 


305 


First  Conditional. 
I  should  go  out,  etc. 
S(^  U)urbe  au§ge()en 
bu  tDiirbeft  au§gel)en 
er  ioiirbe  auSge^en 
Wix  toiirben  auSgel^en 
i^r  toiirbet  au^ge^en 
fie  hjiirben  au^ge^en 


Second  Conditional. 
I  should  have  gone  out,  etc. 
Sd^  hjiirbe  au§gegangen  f  cin 
bu  iDiirbeft  au^gegangen  fein 
er  iDiirbe  au^gegangen  fein 
h)ir  itJiirben  au^gegangen  fein 
il^r  iDitrbet  au€gegangen  fein 
fie  tDiirben  au^gegangen  fein 


Fast. 


Imperative. 

©el^e  au§,  go  (thou)  out 
gel^e  er  au§,  let  him  go  out 
ge^en  h)ir  au§,  let  us  go  out 
ge()et  au§,  go  (you)  out 
gel^en  fie  au§,  let  them  go  out 
ge^en  ©ie  au^,  go  (you)  out 

Participles. 
Present     au^gel^enb,  going  out. 
Fast.        auggegangen,  gone  out. 


Infinitives. 
Fresent.     SluSgel^en,  to  go 
out 
au0gegangen  fein, 
to   have   gone 
out 


II.  ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  STRONG  AND 
IRREGULAR  VERBS 


Remarks.  —  The  principal  parts  are  put  in  full-faced  type.  The 
second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present  indicative  are  given 
when  the  stem-vowel  is  i,  ie,  or  an  umlaut ;  also  when  the  connecting 
vowel  c  is  required,  though  not  absolutely,  in  verbs  whose  stem  ends 
in  b,  t,  %  ff,  f,  [t.  (See  §  118.)  The  second  person  singular  of  the  im- 
perative is  given  when  it  has  the  short  form  without  e,  stem-vowel  i 
or  ie ;  also  when  the  c  is  optional.  A  dash  indicates  weak  or  regular 
forms.  Forms  in  parentheses  are  rare  and  archaic,  for  which  the 
weak  ones  are  in  use  now.  Of  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  n)iffen  the 
whole  present  indicative  singular  and  the  first  person  plural  are  given. 
Compound  verbs  are  given  only  when  the  simple  verb  has  passed  from 
present  use,  e.  g.,  bcfel^ten,  gcbarcn.  English  verbs  in  small  caps  are 
cognates  of  the  German  verbs,  i.  e.,  they  have  the  same  origin  and 
meaning. 


Infinitive. 

^atttn,^  BAKE 
©efe^lett,  command 


2.  and  3.  p.  s.  2.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind.  imp. 

Badft,  b&dt  

befic^lft,  befte^lt  bepc^l 


©cffeiftctt,  apply  (refl.)    befteifeefl,  6eflei§t       Beflei6(c) 
SBeginnen,  begin  


biCft,  btat 
Birgft,  birgt 

blrfiefl,  Birft 


(bcuflft,  beugt 


beim 

bin 

birg 

btrP 


Seigett,  BITE 
©fHen,*  bark 
JBergen,  hide 

Serftett^i  bnrst 

SetneQett,"  induce 

S^iegett,  bend 

1  Frequently  weak,  except  in  the  past  part, 
except  in  this  figurative  sense. 


beug) 


Pret. 
ind. 

littf 

fiefli^ 
begann 

m 

boa 
borfl 


barft 


Pret. 
subj. 

biilc 

bcfa^Ic 
befo^le 

bcftiffe 

begannc 
begonne 

biffe 

b&Qe 

barge 
biirge 

barfle 
borftc 


Past  part. 
0(baifen 

umtn 

brQonnett 

Oebtffen 
OebdKen 
eeboroeit 


bOoog        betobge       betudQett 
bOQ  bSge  Qebogeit 

Now  generally  weak,     s  Weak, 
306) 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


307 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  8. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Pret. 
ind. 

Pret. 

subj. 

Past  part. 

fSMtn,  offer 

(bcutft,  Bcut 

beut) 

bat 

b5tc 

fleboten 

Sinliett,  BiKD 

binbeft,  binbct 

banti 

banbc 

Ocbunben 

©ittcit,  beg 

bitteft,  fiittct 

bat 

bate 

flebctctt 

ma\tn,  BLOW 

blafcfl,  bWft 



bUeS 

bliefe 

Oeblafen 

I931et6en^  remain 



blieb 

btiebe 

eebltcben 

Sleirften,!  bleach 

urn 

bltc^e 

gebUi^eit 

©roteu,2  roast 

bratft.  Brat 

briet 

brtete 

Qebraten 

Steti^eit,  BREAK 

Brid^ft,  brid^t 

brid^ 

bro« 

broc^e 

flcDrorfjen 

©rettnett,  burn 



branntc 

brennte 

flebrnnut 

©rtitflen,  bring 



brai^te 

brac^tc 

eebrn^t 

Senfeit,  think 



umt 

bac^te 

gebarfjt 

D{U0ett,3  hire,  bargain 



(baitfl 
dintB 

bUnge) 

Oeftuiiflen 

Stefr^en,  thkbsh 

brifci^eft,  brifc^t 

brifd) 

brttfilj 
brofj^ 

brafcbc 
br5fd)e 

Oehroft^en 

arlUBClt,  urge 

Urong 

brange 

QcHrungen 

Sunfen,  think 

(btt««te 

bauc^te 

0CllOU«t) 

aurfeit,  be  allowed 

barf,  barfft, 
barf,  bUrfen 

(wanting)  burfte 

bitvfte 

eeburft 

(&mpft1iUn,  recommend 

I  cmpfiel^Ift,  cmpfiel^lt  empfiel^I 

emufa^l 

etnpfS'^Ie 
empfS^le 

twpmun 

gffen,  eat 

iffeft,  m 

i§ 

ofe 

afee 

fleflefictt 

fallen,  archaic  for  fang  en 

gfO^Wn,  go,  FARE 

fa^rft,  fa^rt 

fa^r(e) 

fu^r 

fU^re 

eeftt^fett 

gfttllen,  FALL 

faCft,  faOt 



pel 

fiele 

eefaaett 

lyttUcn,*  FOLD 

falteft,  faltct 





eefftttett 

JJoneen,  catch 

fangft,  fangt 

A 

finge 
fienge) 

flefttneen 

gfciSten,  FIGHT 

fic^teft,5ftc^tB 

fiC^t5 

fa«t 

fbd^te 

eefoditcti 

gflnUen,  find 

flnbeft,  finbet 

fttttH 

fanbe 

eefunhen 

^mttn,  twine 

m\i,^^m' 

flic^te 

fIO«t 

floc^te 

Oepori&tctt 

gfUegen,  fly 

(fteugft,  fleugt 

fleufl) 

m 

fibge 

eepocett 

glle^en,  flee 

(flcuc^ft,  fleud^t 

fleud^) 

m 

P^e 

OcfUoljen 

1  Weak  when  transitive ;  sometimes  even  when  intransitive.  ^  Sometimes  weak, 
except  ill  the  past  part,  s  Still  frequently  weak.  *  Now  entirely  weak,  except  in  the 
past  part.    5  ^he  weak  forms  also  occur. 


308 


STEONG   AND   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  B. 
imp. 

Fret, 
ind. 

Pret. 
subj. 

Past  part. 

gfUcflcit,  flow 

(fleufeeft,  fleufet 

fleufe) 

m 

floffe 

eepofjen 

gftOfleit,  ask 

frcigft,  fragt 

— 

fni0 

fruge 

Befrofiti 

lyreff  en,  EAT  (of  animals)  f  riff  eft,  frifet 

m 

\m 

frafee 

gcfreffen 

gfrleren,  freeze 

— 

fror 

frorc 

flcfroreii 

@a(^)ren,  ferment 

(gterft,  giert) 

floor  2 

go^re 

gego^rciia 

®tiattn,  BEA.B 

(gebierft,  gebtert 

gebier) 

gefior 

gebcire 

geborctt 

(BtUn,  GIVE 

giebft,  giebt 
flibft,  gibt 

gieb 
gib 

flttfi 

gabe 

eegeben 

©rtci^cn,  thrive 

OebleO 

gebiel^e 

flcHie^ett 

@el|ett,  GO 



0i»fl 
(flienfl 

ginge 
gienge) 

flegnngen 

©eltngen,  succeed 

eelnno 

gelange 

gehingen 

®tlitn,  be  worth 

giltft,  gilt 

m 

OaU 

gaite 
golte 

OcgaUen 

©enefen,  recover 

gcnefeft,  gencft 



flcttnS 

gencife 

fleiicfen 

©enic^eit,  enjoy 

(geneu^eft,  geneufet 

gencu^) 

geno^ 

genoffe 

genjjffen 

©efiSe^ett,  happen 

gefd^ielift,  gef4)te^t 

(wanting)  flcft^Oft 

gefc^a^e 

flef^efteit 

©etolttttcn,  WIN 

OeUionn 

geioanne 
geiobnne 

fleUmnnett 

©fcfeett,  pour 

(geu^eft,  geufet 

geu§) 

soft 

Sbffe 

flefloRen 

®IH(5en,3  resemble 



eH« 

Qlic^e 

fleglid^en 

©leifeen,  glitter 

gleifeeft,  gtetfet 

(flHft 

9liffe 

Oegllffen) 

©Icitflt,*  GLIDE 

gleiteft,  gleitet 

flUtt 

glitte 

geglttten 

©Untaten,  gleam 



fllomm 

glomme 

eglommen 

©rofien,  dig 

gvabft,  grSbt 

grufi 

griibc 

gegraben 

'©reifen,  gripe,  grasp 

flriff 

griffe 

ecgriffcn 

§tt6en,  HAVE 

^aft,  i^ot 

Ddtte 

liatte 

ee^nbt 

^ttlten,  HOLD 

^aitft,  ^art 

^alt(e) 

Oielt 

^ielte 

(je^ttlten 

^tttteett,  HANG 

l^angft,  tiangf^ 

Jlitfl 

^inge 
l^ienge 

fle^oitfleit 

fatten,  hew 



am 

l^iebe 

geftatten 

§eBen,  raise 

Pbe 
IjUbe 

flc^dfi  tt 

1  Always  weak,  and  the  other  forms  are  properly  weak.  2  Also  weak,  especially  in 
figurative  sense.  ^  Usually  weak  when  transitive,  make  likb.  *  Weak  forms  some 
times  occur.  ^  l^angft,  l^angt  also  occur.  Often  confounded  with  the  weak  and  transi- 
tive l^angcn. 


STRONG    AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


309 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  s. 
imp. 

Pret. 
ind. 

Fret. 

subj. 

Past  part. 

§etfjcn,  call 

Oeigeft,  tieifet 



m 

Iliefee 

Oc^eifeen 

^elfCll,  HELP 

^itfft,  mn 

l)ilf 

m\ 

OC^olfen 

Sttoeu,^  hunt 

(icigft,  icigt) 

(iuc 

iilge) 

BfittQt 

ftetfcii,2  chide 

ftff 

tiffe 

gcfiffeit 

^CmiClt,  KNOW 

lannte 

lennte 

gefannt 

^icfcn,  see  ^itrm 

tUeficn,  CLEAVE,  split 

no6 

IIo5e 

Qefloben 

tUmmctt,3  CLIMB 

flomtn 

Ilomme 

geflommen 

^Un(jen,  sound 

HoHo 

Ilange 
tliiuge 

OeHunoen 

Unctfen,*  pinch 

fniff 

Iniffe 

gefniffen 

^ttei^cn,2  pinch 

(fnijjji 

tntppe 

iSitnmtn) 

^OlJrtlWn,  COME 

(fommft,  lommt) 

tomm(e) 

Urn 

tame 

Ocfommen 

itiimtcn,  can 

faun,  lannft,  faun, 
Jonnen 

(wanting)  fonitte 

Ifinnte 

Oefoniit 

itretf(i^cn,5  scream 

treif(i)eft,  fretfc^t 

wm 

frifc^e 

flefriit^en 

ilrtcrfjcn,  creep 

(fveucfift,  Iveud^t 

freud}) 

fro(9 

frbc^e 

oefroii&eit 

iljireu,  choose 

for 

I5re 

Oeforen 

gnlJcn,*'  LOAD,  invite 

labft,  labt 



IU& 

lilbe 

QCloUen 

grtfieU,  LET 

laffeft,  im 

ta^(e) 

m 

Ite^e 

Oeloffen 

gnufctt,  run 

laufft,  lauft 

lief 

liefe 

Oeloufeu 

8ciJ>en,  suffer 

leibeft,  leibet 

Utt 

litte 

Oelitten 

gel^en,  lend 



lie^ 

lie^e 

Oelic^ett 

Scicn,  read 

Uefeft,  lieft 

lies 

m 

lafe 

Oelcfen 

SicQcn,  lie 

lao 

rage 

OcIcflCtt 

Siilrfjcn,'  go  out 

lifd)eft,  imt 

afc^ 

im 

lojd^e 

Oclof«en 

giigctt,  tell  a  lie 

(leugft,  leugt 

leug) 

in 

I8ge 

flrtoflett 

9)}o()leu,8  grind 

(ma^lft,  ma^It) 

(mu^l 

mUljIe) 

(jemtt^len 

9Ret&en,  shun 

metbeft,  tneibet 

ntieb 

mtebe 

flcmiciJeit 

1  The  strong  forms,  except  perhaps  jug,  are  colloquial.  2  Usually  weak,  s  Weak 
forms  sometimes  occur.  *  Sometimes  weak,  c  Now  usually  weak.  ^  Also  weak.  Two 
verbs  are  hopelessly  confounded  in  this  one,  viz.,  laben,  load,  once  always  strong, 
and  laben,  invite,  once  always  weak.  ^  When  transitive,  quench,  weak,  s  Usually 
weak,  except  in  the  past  part. 


310 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


lufinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  s. 
imp. 

Pret. 

ind. 

Pret. 
subj. 

Past  part. 

aWcircn,!  milk 

(milfft,  tnilft 

mil!) 

tnolf 

tnolfe 

gmoUen 

3}lt]\tn,  measure 

miffeft,  mx%i 

ittife 

tnafe 

ma^e 

Oemeffen 

aBiRUugcn,  fail 

ntipono 

wi^lcinge 

tntfelungen 

aBJiflen,  may 

tnag,  tnogft,  mag, 
mogeit 

(wanting)  mot^tt 

inbdjte 

Ocmot^t 

aRiiffcn,  MUST 

mu%.  tnu§t,  miife, 
miilien 

(wanting)  mufetc 

mitftte 

flcmufet 

We^mcn,  take 

nimmft,  itimmt 

nimm 

nttOm 

naljtue 

Qenommen 

Kcnnen,  name 

nannte 

nenntc 

geuannt 

«Pfelfett,  whistle 



iJpff 

Pfiffe 

Oe^Pffcn 

«Pfl(eOen,2  cherish 



Vfloge 

OeiipoBeit 

^rei|en,3  praise 

pveifeft,  preifi 



ptit& 

priefe 

Oe|)riffett 

Cucnen,*  gush 

quiUft,  quiat 

quill 

quon 

quoUe 

Ocquonen 

ffiai^tn,^  avenge 



(toi^ 

vod^e) 

gerorfjen 

mmm,  advise 

rat(^)ft,  rat(W 



titm 

rtet(^)e 

flcrot(t))cn 

ntibtn,  rub 



rieB 

riebe 

flertcfictt 

Sleifecn,  tear 

reifeeft,  reifet 

reiB(e) 

rife 

ri[fe 

Ocriffcn 

9ltittn,  BIDE 

veiteft,  reitet 

rltt 

vitte 

Ocrittcit 

Wennen,  bun 



ronnte 

renute 

gerannt 

Wieri^cn,  smell 

(veud^ft,  reu(j^t 

reud^) 

ror^ 

roc^e 

Ociojl^ctt 

Dijngcn,  wbing,  wrestle 

rono 

range 

Oeruttoen 

Sinnen,  bun 

riintt 

(ramie) 
ronne 

geronuen 

Wufen,  call 

ricf 

riefe 

(jentfctt 

Sol3cn,8  SALT 

faljeft,  faljt 



Oeial3cn 

Soufcit,  drmk 

faufft,  fauft 

fauf(e) 

foff 

fStfe 

flcfoffcn 

©ttuflen,  SUCK 

foo 

fbge 

gcfooctt 

Sifjnffctt,'  create 

m\ 

fc^iife 

Oef^nffctt 

Srfjtt(lett,2  Bound 



mofi 

fc^bUe 

Ocfr^uUen 

Srfjeiiiett,  part 

fc^eibeft,  fc^cibet 

fulfil 

fc^iebe 

Oclt^ieHeK 

Srijciucn,  appear 



f«ien 

fd^tene 

flcj(|tc«en 

1  Now  usually  weak.  -  Also  entirely  weak.  3  Sometimes  weak.  ♦  When  transitive, 
soak,  weak.  ^  Now  mostly  weak.  «  Only  the  past  part,  is  still  strong.  ^  In  other 
senses  weak. 


STRONG   AND    IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


311 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Fret, 
ind. 

Fret, 
subj. 

Fast  part. 

Sri^eltcn,  scold 

fc^ilft,  fd)ilt 

fc^ilt 

malt 

fd^dlte 
fc^olte 

Oef^oHen 

Sd^crett,!  shear 

fd)ierft,  fcl;ievt 

fester 

fdjor 

fc^ore 

Qefd^oren 

Sri^icDen,  shove 

fi^oD 

fd^obe 

Qcfj^obeit 

Sli^iCJjCU,  SHOOT 

(fc^cufecft,  fc^euBt 

fc^eufe) 

\m 

[d^ofje 

ficfi^offen 

Srftinbcn,  flay 

fd^infaeft,  fc^inbct 

mnh^ 

fd^iinbe 

Bcfc^unJien 

^(i^iafen,  sleep 

fc^rafft,  fc^rsft 

fc^laf(e) 

f^lief 

fc^Iiefe 

Oefrfjlofctt 

<S^laQtn,  strike 

fc^Iagft,  fc^lagt 



\mn 

fc^lUge 

%i\ma%tn 

^^Ui(^tit,  sneak 



mm 

fc^lic^e 

%tmmin 

S(^letfett,2  whet 

f«Hff 

f^Iiffe 

eeftfiliffen 

©(i^IetBcn,  SLIT 

fc^Ieifeeft,  \d)hx%t 

mm 

fc^Hffe 

Oef^UHett 

m\it\tn,  slip 

(fc^leufft,  fdjreuft 

fc^leuf) 

f«Ioff 

mim 

9cf«loffen 

<Si|Uef,en,  shut 

(fc^IeuBcft,  fc^leuBt 

fcf}feufe) 

f^lofe 

mm 

itmioWm 

^t^UUQtn,  SLING 

\maH 

fd^Iange 

flefj^lungen 

®ii|mcij;ctt,  smite 

fc^meifeeft,  fc^meifet 

fc^meife(e) 

mm 

fc^miffe 

Bcfi^miijen 

S^tnel3eu,3  melt 

fc^miljeft,  fd^mtrjt 

fd^milj 

ftftmola 

fd)moIie 

gefc^moljett 

Sdjnttuficn,*  snort 



f«UOll 

fd^itobe 

ecfr^noBcn 

(Sd^netiien,  cut 

fd^netbeft,  fd^neibet 

fjftttitt 

f^nitte 

eeir^nfttcn 

S(i^rnu6cn,s  screw 



f^roli 

fc^roBe 

Be|«ro6cn 

®d|rcrfen,3  be  afraid 

fc^ridft,  fc^ridt 

fc^dcf 

mvaa 

fd^rcife 

geic^rorfen 

iSri^rei6cn,  write 

f^riefi 

fc^riebe 

flefiftrtefiett 

Si^reten,  cry 



fc^rei(e) 

f«ric 

fd^riee 

0c|i^rlcett 

Sd^reiten,  stride 

fdEireiteft,  fd^reitet 

|«rttt 

jd^ritte 

fle|«rlttett 

S(^rotcn,6  rough-grind  jd^roteft,  fd^rotet 



gefri^niten 

®(l|Uinrcn,  suppurate 

(fd^toierft,  fdfiiuiert 

fd;n)ier) 

m^ot 

fd^tobve 

oefi^tooren 

Si^lUCtOfn,^  be  silent 

m\om 

fd^wiege 

geft^toteBen 

S(^ttlCftCU,3  SWELL 

jcf)ioiUft,  fdjtDiUt 

fdjtDiir 

mtoou 

fc^rooUe 

gef^toonen 

Si^toimmen,  swim 

f^Uiamm 

fd^robmmc 

Sd^tninlten,  vanish 

fd^lDinbeft,  fd^roinbel 

; 

mmnti 

fd^ioanbe 
fd^roiinbc 

gef(i^ttiun&en 

1  Sometimes  weak.  2  Weak  in  other  senses,  raze,  drag.  '  Weak  when  transitive. 
*  Also  weak  ;  fd^niebett  occurs  instead  of  fd^nauben.  ^  Also  weak,  c  Only  the  past 
part,  still  strong. 


312 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  s. 
imp. 

Pret. 
ind. 

Pret. 

subj. 

Past  part. 

©j^toineett,  swing 

fr^iuttito 

fc^roange 
fd^iuiinge 

flcf^touufle 

Sri^todren,  swear 



fd^rcbre 
fc^ioiire 

Oe)d|nioreii 

Sc^en,  SEE 

fie^t,  ncl)t 

fie^e) 

m 

fft^e 

fiefc^en 

Scin,  be 

bin,  bift,  ift  jc. 

fei 

niar 

iDore 

BchJcfen 

Seniiett,  send 

fcnbeft,  fenbet 

fanbte 
fenHetc 

fenbete 

Oefonbt 
OefenJiet 

Sicben,!  seethe 

fiebeft,  fiebet 

fott 

fotte 

(jcfatten 

Stttoett,  SING 

fttttfl 

fange 

ncfunfictt 

Sinfen,  sink 

fonf 

fanle 

Cefunfcn 

©{nncn,  think 



fonn 

fanne 
fonne 

Gcfonnen 

©i^ctt,  sit 

fi^efi,  fi^t 

\n 

\m 

Oefcfjen 

©oHctt,  should 

fon,  foKft,  foU,  foaen  (wanting)  folltc 

foUte 

Bcfont 

S|ittUcn,2  split 

fpalteft,  fpaltet 

gefjittltcn 

Sjieicn,  SPEW 



m 

fpiee 

OC|>tem 

©Ijlnncn,  spin 

■   ■ 

fJJOlUl 

fpanne 
fponne 

gef^onnen 

S|ilel^cn,  SPLIT 

jpreifeeft,  fpleifet 



\m 

fpliffe 

Oef^Ilffen 

(Sj)re(|cn,  speak 

fprid^ft,  fpridjt 

fpric^ 

\m<^ 

fprad;e 

Ocfjiror^cii 

©tiric^cn,  sprout 

(fpreuBeft,  fpveufet 

fpreuB) 

fjiroft 

fprbfje 

Ocf^roffen 

GUringctt,  spring 



f^rano 

fprange 

Ocfiirungcn 

(Steven,  prick 

fticl)ft,  ftt(|t 

ftic^ 

\m 

ftac^e 

eeftod^eit 

©tcrfen,s  stick 

(fticfft,  ftidt 

ftic!) 

m 

ftafe 

(gcftoifen) 

©te^ett,  stand 

fte^e 

ftnttii 
ftunb 

ftanbe 
tiinb* 

eeftonhen 

©te^Ien,  steal 

ftiel^Ift,  ftic^lt 

ftiel^l 

m\ 

flol)le 

gefto^lett 

Steigen,  ascend 



ftieo 

ftiegc 

OefHeflCtt 

Sterliett,  die 

ftirbft,  ftirbt 

ftirb 

ftar6 

ftarbe 
turbe 

gefiorBen 

Stielicn,  disperse 



m 

ftijbe 

CePofien 

Stinlcn,  stink 

ftotif 

ftanle 

Oeftunfen 

ftunte 


1  Also  weak.    2  Only  the  past  part,  still  strong, 
sometimes  even  when  intransitive. 


Always  weak  when  transitive  : 


STRONG    AND    IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


313 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Pret. 

ind. 

Pret. 

subj. 

Past  part. 

Stolen,  push 

no  fecit,  ftoBt 

ftofXe) 

m 

ftiege 

OePofeeit 

StrcirfjClt,  STBOKE 

— 



ftri« 

iirid^e 

flefirid^en 

Streilcn,  strive 

ftveiteft,  ftreitet 



ftritt 

ftrittc 

Seftritttn 

2^Utt,  DO 

t^u(e) 

tw 

t\)aU 

Oet^iin 

Xta^tn,  carry 

traoft,  tragt 

true 

truge 

(jelrnoen 

Sreffeit,  hit 

triffft,  trifft 

triff 

traf 

trafe 

(jctroffcn 

2rei6c«,  drive 

tric6 

triebe 

(jctricben 

XVtttn,  TREAD 

trittft,  tritt 

ttitt 

trot 

trate 

oetreten 

Xtit\tn,^  DRIP 

(treufft,  tveuft 

treuf) 

troff 

trbffe 

flctroffen 

2rfnfctt,  DRINK 

ttttttf 

tranle 
ti-Unfe 

Bctrunfett 

^rugeit,  deceive 

(treugft,  treugt 

trcug) 

trofl 

tvbge 

fletroectt 

83erJJcr6ett,2  spoil 

Dcrbirbft,  ocrbirbt 

ocrbirb 

berbarb 

tjcfbavbe 
wevbitrbe 

berborben 

SwJiricfeen,  vex 

(nerbreufeeft, 
oerbreufet, 

uerbreuB) 

tiertirof; 

oerbroftc 

herbroffeit 

©creeffcn,  forget 

cevgiffeft,  ccrgifet 

oergi^ 

bcrflu^ 

oergcifjc 

bcrGeflen 

©edlcren,  lose 

berlor 

ocrlbrc 

berlotett 

SBai^fett,  grow 

road^feft,  roac|ft 

hiut^g 

TOiid^fe 

Oehitirfjfcn 

aeooen,^  WEIGH 

Uiag 

rcbge 

Cchioflcn 

2Bttf(5cit,  WASH 

roafd^eft,  lucifd^t 

mm 

roiiyc^e 

Oetottft^ett 

2Be6ett,3  weave 



mob 

n)obe 

getaoben 

SBeit^en,"  yield 



toi« 

roid^e 

Bctol^en 

SBeifen,  show 

toetfeft,  roeift 

biteS 

iDicje 

gehiicicn 

SBeulich,  turn 

roenbeft,  roenbet 

totttitite 
toenbete 

icenbetc 

gehittttbt 
getuenbet 

3Bertcn,  sue 

roirbft,  roirbt 

roirb 

tuarb 

roarbc 
TOiirbc 

gctoorbett 

SBerlieit,  become 

roirft,  roirb 

roerbe 

tuarb 
Itiurbe 

jDiirbc 

gctBOrbeit 

SBcrfen,  throw 

twirfft,  tDtrft 

toirf 

toarf 

roarfe 
ttjurfe 

flctootfen 

gBleflcn,^  WEIGH 

toofl 

rooge 

getoagen 

1  Sometimes  weak.  2  Weak  when  transitive.  »  Also  weak,  especially  in  the  sense 
of  Tnove,  hover.  *  Weak  in  the  sense  of  soften.  0  sngagen  and  toiegen  are  really  identi- 
cal.   SQSiegen,  rock,  is  always  weak. 


314 


STRONG    AND    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres,  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Fret, 
ind. 

Pret. 
subj. 

Past  part. 

SBinbcn,  wind 

TOinbeft,  roinbet 

tunn)) 

TOanbe 
luiiube 

Ottoimben 

Sffilffett,  know 

roet^,  toeigt, 
roeif,  TDtfjen 

iBifje 

Uiufetc 

roiifetc 

fletoufet 

SBonett,  WILL 

rotH,  tDtQft, 
will,  rooUeii 

rooUe 

toonte 

tuonte 

OetooMt 

gei^en,  accuse 

m 

Jie^c 

Bqlfllfn 

;3iet)cu,  draw 

(jcuc^ft,  5euc:7t 

5eud)) 

m 

Sogc 

Qcjoften 

jgtolttflett,  force 

atonnfl 

SToange 
jtoiinge 

BtatauitQen 

>'B  36406 


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